Dzungar people
ᠵᠡᠭᠦᠨᠭᠠᠷ | |
---|---|
Ili and other regions and his wife, Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769. | |
Total population | |
658,372-668,372 | |
Regions with significant populations | |
China | 250,000 (2013 estimate) |
Mongolia | 205,000 (2010 census) |
Russia | 183,372 (Kalmyk)[1] |
Kyrgyzstan | 12,000 (Kalmyk)[2] |
Ukraine | 325 (Kalmyk)[3] |
United States | 1,500 (Kalmyk)[4] |
Languages | |
Oirat, Chagatai | |
Religion | |
Tibetan Buddhism |
Dzungar people | |
---|---|
Chinese name | |
Mongolian Cyrillic | Зүүнгар, Mongolian pronunciation: [tsuːŋˈɢɑr] |
Mongolian script | ᠵᠡᠭᠦᠨᠭᠠᠷ |
Kazakh name | |
Kazakh | Жоңғар [ʑwʊɴˈʁɑɾ] Joñğar جوڭگار |
The Dzungar people (also written as Zunghar or Junggar; from the
Origin
The Dzungars were a confederation of several Oirat tribes that emerged in the early 17th century to fight the Altan Khan of the Khalkha (not to be confused with the better-known Altan Khan of the Tümed), Tümen Zasagt Khan, and later the Manchu for dominion and control over the Mongolian people and territories. This confederation rose to power in what became known as the Junggar Basin in Dzungaria between the Altai Mountains and the Ili Valley. Initially, the confederation consisted of the Oöled, Dörbet Oirat (also written Derbet) and the Khoid. Later on, elements of the Khoshut and Torghut were forcibly incorporated into the Dzungar military, thus completing the reunification of the West Mongolian tribes.
According to oral history, the Oöled and Dörbet tribes are the successor tribes to the Naimans, a group of Mongols who roamed the steppes of Central Asia during the era of Genghis Khan. The Oöled shared the clan name Choros with the Dörbet. Zuun gar "left hand" and Baruun gar "right hand" formed the Oirat's military and administrative organization. The Dzungar Olot people and the Choros became the ruling clans in the 17th century.
History
In 1697, two relatives of Galdan Boshugtu Khan, Danjila and Rabdan, surrendered to the Qing Kangxi Emperor. Their people were then organized into two Oolod banners and resettled in what is now Bayankhongor Province, Mongolia. In 1731, five hundred households fled back to Dzungar territory while the remaining Olots were deported to Hulunbuir. After 1761, some of them were resettled in Arkhangai Province.
The Dzungars who lived in an area that stretched from the west end of the Great Wall of China to present-day eastern Kazakhstan and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia (most of which is located in present-day Xinjiang), were the last nomadic empire to threaten China, which they did from the early 17th century through the middle of the 18th century.[7]
During this time, the Dzungar pioneered the local manifestation of a ‘Military Revolution’ in Central Eurasia after perfecting a process of manufacturing indigenously created gunpowder weapons. They created a mixed agro-pastoral economy, as well as complementary mining and manufacturing industries on their lands. The Dzungar managed to enact an empire-wide system of laws and policies to boost the use of the Oirat language in the region.[8]
After a series of inconclusive military conflicts that started in the 1680s, the Dzungars were subjugated by the
The Khoit tribe was to have the Dzungar leader Amursana as its Khan. Amursana rejected the Qing arrangement and rebelled since he wanted to be leader of a united Dzungar nation. Qianlong then issued his orders for the genocide and eradication of the entire Dzungar nation and name. Qing Manchu Bannermen and Khalkha (Eastern) Mongols enslaved Dzungar women and children while slaying the other Dzungars.[11]
In 1755, the
During this war, Kazakhs attacked dispersed Oirats and
Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."[20] The Dzungar genocide was completed by a combination of a smallpox epidemic and the direct slaughter of Dzungars by Qing forces made out of Manchu Bannermen and (Khalkha) Mongols.[21]
Anti-Dzungar
It was not until generations later that Dzungaria rebounded from the destruction and near liquidation of the Dzungars after the mass slayings of nearly a million Dzungars.[24] Historian Peter C. Perdue has shown that the annihilation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by Qianlong,[25] Perdue attributed the elimination of the Dzungars to a "deliberate use of massacre" and has described it as an "ethnic genocide".[26]
The Qing "final solution" of genocide to solve the problem of the Dzungars made the Qing sponsored settlement of millions of Han Chinese, Hui, Turkestani Oasis people (Uyghurs) and Manchu Bannermen in Dzungaria possible, since the land was now devoid of Dzungars.
The depopulation of northern Xinjiang after the
Qianlong explicitly commemorated the Qing conquest of the Dzungars as having added new territory in Xinjiang to "China", defining China as a multi ethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han areas in "China proper", meaning that according to the Qing, both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", which included Xinjiang which the Qing conquered from the Dzungars.[33] After the Qing were done conquering Dzungaria in 1759, they proclaimed that the new land which formerly belonged to the Dzungars, was now absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu language memorial.[34][35]
The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the Inner Mongols, Eastern Mongols, Oirat Mongols, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han Chinese, into "one family" united in the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" 中外一家 or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" 內外一家 ("interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples.
The Hulun Buir Oolods formed an administrative banner along the Imin and Shinekhen Rivers. During the Qing dynasty, a body of them resettled in Yakeshi city. In 1764 many Oolods migrated to Khovd Province in Mongolia and supplied corvee services for the Khovd garrison of the Qing. Their number reached 9,100 in 1989. A united administrative unit was demanded by them.[38]
The Dzungars remaining in Xinjiang were also renamed Oolods. They dominated 30 of the 148 Mongol sums during the Qing dynasty era. They numbered 25,000 in 1999.
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A commoner fromIliand other regions, with his wife. Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769
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Ayusi riding a horse
References
- ^ Итоги ВПН 2010 Archived 2016-06-05 at the Wayback Machine All Russian census, 2010
- ^ "PRESIDENT.MN". Archived from the original on 6 December 2016. Retrieved 4 December 2016.
- ^ State statistics committee of Ukraine – National composition of population, 2001 census (Ukrainian)
- S2CID 144027029. Retrieved 2023-04-25.
- ^ C.P. Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 425
- ^ "National Census 2010 of Mongolia" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-15.
- Russian empire.
- ^ Haines, Spencer (2017). "The 'Military Revolution' Arrives on the Central Eurasian Steppe: The Unique Case of the Zunghar (1676 - 1745)". Mongolica: An International Journal of Mongolian Studies. 51: 170–185.
- ^ Clarke 2004, p. 37.
- ^ Millward 2007, p. 95
- ^ Millward 2007, p. 95
- ^ 大清高宗純皇帝實錄, 乾隆二十四年
- ^ 平定準噶爾方略
- ^ Lattimore, Owen (1950). Pivot of Asia; Sinkiang and the inner Asian frontiers of China and Russia. Little, Brown. p. 126.
- ^ a b Perdue 2005, pp. 283–287
- ^ Starr 2004, p. 54
- ^ Wei Yuan, 聖武記 Military history of the Qing Dynasty, vol.4. "計數十萬戶中,先痘死者十之四,繼竄入俄羅斯哈薩克者十之二,卒殲於大兵者十之三。除婦孺充賞外,至今惟來降受屯之厄鲁特若干戶,編設佐領昂吉,此外數千里間,無瓦剌一氊帳。"
- ^ Chu, Wen-Djang (1966). The Moslem Rebellion in Northwest China 1862-1878. Mouton & co. p. 1.
- ^ "Michael Edmund Clarke, In the Eye of Power (doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-06. Retrieved 2013-02-19.
- ^ Levene 2008, p. 188
- ^ Lorge 2006, p. 165.
- ^ Kim 2008, pp. 49, 134, 308
- ^ Kim 2008, p. 139
- ^ Tyler 2004, p. 55
- ^ a b Perdue 2009, p. 285
- ^ Perdue 2005, pp. 283–285
- ^ Tyler 2004, p. 4
- ^ Starr 2004, p. 243
- ^ Millward 1998, p. 102
- ^ Liu & Faure 1996, p. 71
- ^ Liu & Faure 1996, p. 72
- ^ Liu & Faure 1996, p. 76
- ^ Zhao 2006, pp. 11, 12
- ^ Dunnell et al. 2004, pp. 77, 83
- ^ Elliott 2001, p. 503
- ^ Dunnell et al. 2004, pp. 76–77
- ^ Perdue 2009, p. 218
- ^ Chuluunbaatar p. 170.
Sources
- Chuluunbaatar, Otgonbayar (2010). "The Cultural and Ethnic Identity of the Oirat Peoples" (PDF). In Lehner, E. (ed.). Along the Great Wall: Architecture and Identity in China and Mongolia. Vienna: IVA-ICRA. pp. 165–172. ISBN 978-3-900265-21-2.
- Clarke, Michael Edmund (2004). In the Eye of Power: China and Xinjiang from the Qing Conquest to the 'New Great Game' for Central Asia, 1759–2004 (PDF) (Thesis). Griffith University, Brisbane: Dept. of International Business & Asian Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-04-10.
- Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philippe; Millward, James A. (2004). New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde. Routledge. ISBN 978-1134362226. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804746847. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Haines, R Spencer (2015). "Myth, Misconception, and Motive for the Zunghar Intervention in Khalkha Mongolia in the 17th Century". Paper Presented at the Third Open Conference on Mongolian Studies, Canberra, ACT, Australia. The Australian National University.
- Haines, R Spencer (2016). "The Physical Remains of the Zunghar Legacy in Central Eurasia: Some Notes from the Field". Paper Presented at the Social and Environmental Changes on the Mongolian Plateau Workshop, Canberra, ACT, Australia. The Australian National University.
- Haines, Spencer (2017). "The 'Military Revolution' Arrives on the Central Eurasian Steppe: The Unique Case of the Zunghar (1676 - 1745)". Mongolica: An International Journal of Mongolian Studies. 51. International Association of Mongolists: 170–185.
- Kim, Kwangmin (2008). Saintly Brokers: Uyghur Muslims, Trade, and the Making of Qing Central Asia, 1696--1814. University of California, Berkeley. ISBN 978-1109101263. Archived from the originalon 4 December 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Liu, Tao Tao; Faure, David (1996). Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-9622094024. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Levene, Mark (2008). "Empires, Native Peoples, and Genocides". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Oxford and New York: Berghahn. pp. 183–204. ISBN 978-1-84545-452-4. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
- Millward, James (1 June 1998). Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804729338.
- Millward, James A. (2007). Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231139243. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
- Perdue, Peter C (2009). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674042025. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
- Perdue, Peter C (2005). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674016842. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
- Starr, S. Frederick, ed. (2004). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0765613189. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Theobald, Ulrich (2013). War Finance and Logistics in Late Imperial China: A Study of the Second Jinchuan Campaign (1771–1776). BRILL. ISBN 978-9004255678. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
- Tyler, Christian (2004). Wild West China: The Taming of Xinjiang (illustrated, reprint ed.). Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813535333. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Zhao, Gang (January 2006). "Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century" (PDF). Modern China. 32 (1): 3–30. S2CID 144587815. Archived from the originalon 2014-03-25. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
External links
- «Начальные времена» ойратской истории Archived 2012-02-24 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)
- ДНК нации или Исторический психотип ойратов Archived 2012-02-24 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)
- Четыре типа ойратской красоты Archived 2012-02-24 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)
- Последние данные по локализации и численности ойрат (htm републикация) Archived 2010-07-05 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)