György Lukács
György Lukács | |
---|---|
PhD ) | |
Spouses |
|
Awards | Hegelian Marxism (after 1918)[2] |
Thesis | A drámaírás főbb irányai a múlt század utolsó negyedében (The Main Directions of Drama-Writing in the Last Quarter of the Past Century) (1909) |
Doctoral advisor | Zsolt Beöthy (1909 PhD thesis advisor) |
Other academic advisors | Georg Simmel |
Doctoral students | István Mészáros, Ágnes Heller |
Other notable students | György Márkus |
Main interests | Political philosophy, social theory, literary theory, aesthetics, Marxist humanism |
Notable ideas | Reification, class consciousness, transcendental homelessness, the genre of tragedy as an ethical category[3] |
György Lukács
Lukács was especially influential as a critic due to his theoretical developments of literary realism and of the novel as a literary genre. In 1919, he was appointed the Hungarian Minister of Culture of the government of the short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic (March–August 1919).[6] Lukács has been described as the preeminent Marxist intellectual of the Stalinist era, though assessing his legacy can be difficult as Lukács seemed both to support Stalinism as the embodiment of Marxist thought, and yet also to champion a return to pre-Stalinist Marxism.[7]
Life and politics
Lukács was born Löwinger György Bernát in Budapest, Austria-Hungary, to the investment banker József Löwinger (later Szegedi Lukács József; 1855–1928) and his wife Adele Wertheimer (Wertheimer Adél; 1860–1917), who were a wealthy Jewish family. He had a brother and sister. He and his family converted to Lutheranism in 1907.[8]
His father was knighted by the empire and received a baronial title, making Lukács a
Pre-Marxist period
Whilst at university in Budapest, Lukács was part of socialist intellectual circles through which he met
Between 1906 and 1909 while in his early twenties, he worked on his 1,000 page A modern dráma fejlődésének története (English: History of the Development of the Modern Drama).[14] It was published in Hungary in 1911.[15][16] He was despaired when it won a prize in 1908 because he did not think the jury was fit to judge it.[17]
Lukács spent much time in Germany, and studied at the
After the beginning of the First World War, Lukács was exempted from military service.[2] In 1914, he married the Russian political activist Jelena Grabenko.[2]
In 1915, Lukács returned to Budapest, where he was the leader of the "
Pivot to communism
In the aftermath of the First World War and the
Communist leader
As part of the government of the short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic, Lukács was made People's Commissar for Education and Culture (he was deputy to the Commissar for Education Zsigmond Kunfi).[21]
It is said by József Nádass that Lukács was giving a lecture entitled "Old Culture and New Culture" to a packed hall when the republic was proclaimed which was interrupted due to the revolution.[22]
During the
After the Hungarian Soviet Republic was defeated, Lukács was ordered by Kun to remain behind with Ottó Korvin, when the rest of the leadership evacuated. Lukács and Korvin's mission was to clandestinely reorganize the communist movement, but this proved to be impossible. Lukács went into hiding, with the help of photographer Olga Máté. After Korvin's capture in 1919, Lukács fled from Hungary to Vienna. He was arrested but was saved from extradition due to a group of writers including Thomas and Heinrich Mann.[28] Thomas Mann later based the character Naphta on Lukács in his novel The Magic Mountain.[29]
He married his second wife, Gertrúd Bortstieber in 1919 in Vienna, a fellow member of the Hungarian Communist Party.[22][2]
Around the 1920s, while Antonio Gramsci was also in Vienna, though they did not meet each other,[30] Lukács met a fellow communist, Victor Serge, and began to develop Leninist ideas in the field of philosophy.[31] His major works in this period were the essays collected in his magnum opus History and Class Consciousness (Geschichte und Klassenbewußtsein, Berlin, 1923). Although these essays display signs[32][d] of what Vladimir Lenin referred to as "left communism"[35] (with later Leninists calling it "ultra-leftism"), they provided Leninism with a substantive philosophical basis. In July 1924, Grigory Zinoviev attacked this book along with the work of Karl Korsch at the Fifth Comintern Congress.[36]
In 1925, shortly after Lenin's death, Lukács published in Vienna the short study Lenin: A Study in the Unity of His Thought (Lenin: Studie über den Zusammenhang seiner Gedanken). In 1925, he published a critical review of Nikolai Bukharin's manual of historical materialism.[37]
As a Hungarian exile, he remained active on the left wing of Hungarian Communist Party, and was opposed to the Moscow-backed programme of
Lukács left Vienna in 1929 first for Berlin, then for Budapest.[2]
Under Stalin and Rákosi
In 1930, while residing in Budapest, Lukács was summoned to
Lukács returned to Berlin in 1931[5] and in 1933 he once again left Berlin for Moscow to attend the Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences.[5] During this time, Lukács first came into contact with the unpublished works of the young Marx.[2]
Lukács and his wife were not permitted to leave the Soviet Union until after the
In 1945, Lukács and his wife returned to Hungary. As a member of the Hungarian Communist Party, he took part in establishing the new Hungarian government. From 1945 Lukács was a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Between 1945 and 1946 he strongly criticised non-communist philosophers and writers. Lukács has been accused of playing an "administrative" (legal-bureaucratic) role in the removal of independent and non-communist intellectuals such as Béla Hamvas, István Bibó, Lajos Prohászka, and Károly Kerényi from Hungarian academic life. Between 1946 and 1953, many non-communist intellectuals, including Bibó, were imprisoned or forced into menial work or manual labour.
Lukács's personal aesthetic and political position on culture was always that socialist culture would eventually triumph in terms of quality. He thought it should play out in terms of competing cultures, not by "administrative" measures. In 1948–49, Lukács' position for cultural tolerance was smashed in a "Lukács purge," when
In the mid-1950s, Lukács was reintegrated into party life. The party used him to help purge the Hungarian Writers' Union in 1955–1956. Tamás Aczél and Tibor Méray (former Secretaries of the Hungarian Writers' Union) both believe that Lukács participated grudgingly, and cite Lukács leaving the presidium and the meeting at the first break as evidence of this reluctance.[39]
De-Stalinisation
In 1956, Lukács became a minister of the
During the
Following the defeat of the Revolution, Lukács was deported to the
He returned to Budapest in 1957.[5] Lukács publicly abandoned his positions of 1956 and engaged in self-criticism. Having abandoned his earlier positions, Lukács remained loyal to the Communist Party until his death in 1971. In his last years, following the uprisings in France and Czechoslovakia in 1968, Lukács became more publicly critical of the Soviet Union and the Hungarian Communist Party.[45]
In an interview just before his death, Lukács remarked:
Without a genuine general theory of society and its movement, one does not get away from Stalinism. Stalin was a great tactician... But Stalin, unfortunately, was not a Marxist... The essence of Stalinism lies in placing tactics before strategy, practice above theory... The bureaucracy generated by Stalinism is a tremendous evil. Society is suffocated by it. Everything becomes unreal, nominalistic. People see no design, no strategic aim, and do not move..." Thus Lukács concludes "[w]e must learn to connect the great decisions of popular political power with personal needs, those of individuals.
— Marcus, Judith; Zoltan, Tarr (1989). pp. 215–216, Georg Lukács: Theory, Culture, and Politics
Work
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History and Class Consciousness
Written between 1919 and 1922 and published in 1923, Lukács's collection of essays History and Class Consciousness contributed to debates concerning Marxism and its relation to sociology, politics and philosophy.[46] With this work, Lukács initiated the current of thought that came to be known as "Western Marxism".[47][48][20] At Lukács' direction, there was no reprinting in his lifetime, making it rare and hard to acquire before 1968. Its return to prominence was aided by the social movements of the 1960s.[20]
The most important essay in Lukács's book introduces the concept of "
Lukács also develops the Marxist theory of
In his later career, Lukács repudiated the ideas of History and Class Consciousness, in particular the belief in the proletariat as a "
What is Orthodox Marxism?
This section needs additional citations for verification. (December 2012) |
Lukács argues that methodology is the only thing that distinguishes Marxism: even if all its substantive propositions were rejected, it would remain valid because of its distinctive method:[53]
Orthodox Marxism, therefore, does not imply the uncritical acceptance of the results of Marx's investigations. It is not the 'belief' in this or that thesis, nor the exegesis of a 'sacred' book. On the contrary, orthodoxy refers exclusively to method. It is the scientific conviction that dialectical materialism is the road to truth and that its methods can be developed, expanded and deepened only along the lines laid down by its founders.
— §1
He criticises
For this reason the task of orthodox Marxism, its victory over Revisionism and utopianism can never mean the defeat, once and for all, of false tendencies. It is an ever-renewed struggle against the insidious effects of bourgeois ideology on the thought of the proletariat. Marxist orthodoxy is no guardian of traditions, it is the eternally vigilant prophet proclaiming the relation between the tasks of the immediate present and the totality of the historical process.
— end of §5
According to him, "The premise of dialectical materialism is, we recall: 'It is not men's consciousness that determines their existence, but on the contrary, their social existence that determines their consciousness.' ...Only when the core of existence stands revealed as a social process can existence be seen as the product, albeit the hitherto unconscious product, of human activity." (§5). In line with Marx's thought, he criticises the
He conceives the problem in the relationship between theory and practice. Lukács quotes Marx's words: "It is not enough that thought should seek to realise itself; reality must also strive towards thought." How does the thought of intellectuals relate to class struggle, if theory is not simply to lag behind history, as it is in Hegel's philosophy of history ("Minerva always comes at the dusk of night...")? Lukács criticises Friedrich Engels's Anti-Dühring, saying that he "does not even mention the most vital interaction, namely the dialectical relation between subject and object in the historical process, let alone give it the prominence it deserves." This dialectical relation between subject and object is the basis of Lukács's critique of Immanuel Kant's epistemology, according to which the subject is the exterior, universal and contemplating subject, separated from the object.
For Lukács, "ideology" is a projection of the class consciousness of the
Reification and the Consciousness of the Proletariat
Drawing from the insights of
As the bourgeoisie plays the dominant role in this system, it is contrary to its own interests to understand the system's transient historical character.[56] Bourgeois consciousness is mystified. Bourgeois philosophy understands only empirical reality or normative ethics; it lacks the cognitive ability to grasp reality as a whole. Bourgeois rationalism has no interest in phenomena beyond what is calculable and predictable.[56] Only the proletariat, which has no interest in the maintenance of capitalism, can relate to reality in a practical revolutionary way. When the proletariat becomes aware of its situation as a mere commodity in bourgeois society, it will be able to understand the social mechanism as a whole. The self-knowledge of the proletariat is more than just a perception of the world; it is a historical movement of emancipation, a liberation of humanity from the tyranny of reification.[57]
Lukács saw the destruction of society as a proper solution to the "cultural contradiction of the epoch". In 1969 he cited:
“Even though my ideas were confused from a theoretical point of view, I saw the revolutionary destruction of society as the one and only solution to the cultural contradictions of the epoch. Such a worldwide overturning of values cannot take place without the annihilation of the old values.[58]
Literary and aesthetic work
In addition to his standing as a Marxist political thinker, Lukács was an influential
Lukács later repudiated The Theory of the Novel, writing a lengthy introduction that described it as erroneous, but nonetheless containing a "romantic anti-capitalism" which would later develop into Marxism. (This introduction also contains his famous dismissal of
Lukács's later literary criticism includes the well-known essay "Kafka or Thomas Mann?", in which Lukács argues for the work of Thomas Mann as a superior attempt to deal with the condition of modernity, and criticises Franz Kafka's brand of modernism. Lukács steadfastly opposed the formal innovations of modernist writers like Kafka, James Joyce, and Samuel Beckett, preferring the traditional aesthetic of realism.
During his time in Moscow in the 1930s, Lukács worked on Marxist views of aesthetics while belonging to the group around an influential Moscow magazine "The Literary Critic" (Literaturny Kritik).[62] The editor of this magazine, Mikhail Lifshitz, was an important Soviet author on aesthetics. Lifshitz' views were very similar to Lukács's insofar as both argued for the value of the traditional art; despite the drastic difference in age (Lifschitz was much younger) both Lifschitz and Lukács indicated that their working relationship at that time was a collaboration of equals. Lukács contributed frequently to this magazine, which was also followed by Marxist art theoreticians around the world through various translations published by the Soviet government.
The collaboration between Lifschitz and Lukács resulted in the formation of an informal circle of the like-minded Marxist intellectuals connected to the journal Literaturnyi Kritik [The Literary Critic], published monthly starting in the summer of 1933 by the Organisational Committee of the Writers' Union. ... A group of thinkers formed around Lifschitz, Lukács and Andrei Platonov; they were concerned with articulating the aesthetical views of Marx and creating a kind of Marxist aesthetics that had not yet been properly formulated.[63]
Lukács famously argued for the revolutionary character of the novels of
The Historical Novel is probably Lukács's most influential work of literary history. In it he traces the development of the genre of historical fiction. While prior to 1789, he argues, people's consciousness of history was relatively underdeveloped, the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars that followed brought about a realisation of the constantly changing, evolving character of human existence. This new historical consciousness was reflected in the work of Sir Walter Scott, whose novels use 'representative' or 'typical' characters to dramatise major social conflicts and historical transformations, for example the dissolution of feudal society in the Scottish Highlands and the entrenchment of mercantile capitalism. Lukács argues that Scott's new brand of historical realism was taken up by Balzac and Tolstoy, and enabled novelists to depict contemporary social life not as a static drama of fixed, universal types, but rather as a moment of history, constantly changing, open to the potential of revolutionary transformation. For this reason he sees these authors as progressive and their work as potentially radical, despite their own personal conservative politics.
For Lukács, this historical realist tradition began to give way after the 1848 revolutions, when the bourgeoisie ceased to be a progressive force and their role as agents of history was usurped by the proletariat. After this time, historical realism begins to sicken and lose its concern with social life as inescapably historical. He illustrates this point by comparing Flaubert's historical novel Salammbô to that of the earlier realists. For him, Flaubert's work marks a turning away from relevant social issues and an elevation of style over substance. Why he does not discuss Sentimental Education, a novel much more overtly concerned with recent historical developments, is not clear. For much of his life Lukács promoted a return to the realist tradition that he believed had reached its height with Balzac and Scott, and bemoaned the supposed neglect of history that characterised modernism.
The Historical Novel has been hugely influential in subsequent critical studies of historical fiction, and no serious analyst of the genre fails to engage at some level with Lukács's arguments.
Critical and socialist realism
Lukács defined
Balzac boldly exposed the contradiction of nascent capitalist society and hence his observation of reality constantly clashed with his political prejudices. But as an honest artist he always depicted only what he himself saw, learned and underwent, concerning himself not at all whether his-true-to-life description of the things he saw contradicted his pet ideas.[64]
Critical realists include writers who could not rise to the communist worldview, but despite this tried to truthfully reflect the conflicts of the era, not content with the direct description of single events. A great story speaks through individual human destinies in their work. Such writers are not naturalists, allegorists and metaphysicians. They do not flee from the world into the isolated human soul and do not seek to raise its experiences to the rank of timeless, eternal and irresistible properties of human nature. Balzac, Tolstoy, Anatole France, Romain Rolland, George Bernard Shaw, Lion Feuchtwanger and Thomas Mann are the brightest writers from the gallery of critical realists.
Lukács notes that realistic art is usually found either in highly developed countries or in countries undergoing a period of rapid socio-economic development, yet it is possible that backward countries often give rise to advanced literature precisely because of their backwardness, which they seek to overcome by artistic means. Lukács (together with
All
So, modernism is deprived of a historical perspective, tying the person to positions and situations that are not really historically and socially determined. Modernism transforms such situations into transcendental qualities. The great images of great literature, Achilles and Werther, Oedipus and Tom Joad, Antigone and Anna Karenina, are social beings, for Aristotle already noted that man is a social being. And the heroes of modernist literature are torn out of ties with society and history. Narrative becomes purely "subjective", the animal in man is opposed to the social in him, which corresponds to Heidegger's denial and condemnation of society as something impersonal. He wrote:
Literary and art history is a mass graveyard where many artists of talent rest in deserved oblivion because they neither sought nor found any association to the problems of advancing humanity and did not set themselves on the right side in the vital struggle between health and decay.[65]
Barbara Stackman maintains that, for Lukács, decadents are decadent not because they depict illness and decay, but because they do not recognize the existence of health, of the social sphere that would reunite the alienated writer to the progressive forces of history. Sickness, then, is a reactionary mode of insertion into the
On the other hand, socialist realism is recognized as the highest stage in the development of literature:
The prospect of socialist realism is, of course, the struggle for socialism. Socialist realism differs from critical realism not only in that it is based on a specific socialist perspective, but also in that it uses this perspective to describe from within the forces that work in favor of socialism. Critical realists have more than once described the political struggle of our time and depicted heroes – socialists and communists. But only socialist realists describe such heroes from the inside, thus identifying them with the forces of progress. The greatness of socialist realism lies in the fact that the historical totality, directed towards communism, becomes clear as daylight in any fragment of a given work.[67]
In 1938, in his work
The more the domination of the proletariat strengthened, the more deeply and comprehensively socialism penetrated the economy of the Soviet Union, the wider and deeper the cultural revolution embraced the working masses, the stronger and more hopelessly "avant-garde" art was pushed out by an ever more conscious realism. The decline of expressionism is ultimately a consequence of the maturity of the revolutionary masses.[68]
No less typical is his article "Propaganda or Partisanship?", in which he polemicizes against the definition of socialist art as "tendentious." Literature, in his opinion, should not be biased, but only "party-spirited" in the essence of taking the side of the class that is objectively progressive in the given historical moment. Tendentious literature eclectically connects "pure art" with politically alien elements brought in from outside. But such a program, which Franz Mehring once defended, means "the primacy of form over content" and contrasts the aesthetic and political elements of the work. This understanding of art, Lukács says, is Trotskyist.[69]
Lukács' defense of socialist realism contained a critique of Stalinism and a condemnation of most of the party-propagandistic Soviet literature of the 1930s and 1940s (which was based on Andrei Zhdanov's doctrine of "conflictless art" and which Lukács dismissively called "illustrative" literature) as a distortion of true socialist realism. He acknowledged that Stalinism suffered from a lack of "mediation" in the field of cultural policy. Instead of describing the real conflicts of the life of socialist society, Stalinist literature turned into bare schemes and abstractions, describing the general truths of theory and in no way "mediating" them with images taken from reality. The specificity of art was forgotten, and it turned into an instrument of agitation. Schematic optimism has spread in place of the historical. The heroes did not represent any of the typical qualities of the new society. Lenin's article "Party Organization and Party Literature", which, as Nadezhda Krupskaya said, dealt only with political literature, turned into a rule of artistic activity and its evaluation.
Despite all this criticism, Lukács never changed his basic conviction: socialist realism represents a "fundamentally" and "historically" higher stage in the development of art than all its predecessors.
The most surprising product of Lukács' discourse on socialist realism is his articles on
Ontology of social being
Later in life, Lukács undertook a major exposition on the ontology of social being, which has been partly published in English in three volumes. The work is a systematic treatment of dialectical philosophy in its materialist form.
Bibliography
- ISBN 0-262-62020-0.
- The Theory of the Novel (1974). ISBN 0-262-62027-8.
- Lenin: A Study in the Unity of His Thought (1998). ISBN 1-85984-174-0.
- A Defense of History and Class Consciousness (2000). ISBN 1-85984-747-1.
See also
- Lajos Jánossy, Lukács's adopted son
- Marx's notebooks on the history of technology
Notes
- ^ UK: /ˈdʒɜːrdʒ ˈluːkætʃ/, US: /-kɑːtʃ/; Hungarian: [ˈɟørɟ ˈlukaːtʃ]
- ^ German: [ˈløːvɪŋɐ]
- ^ German: [ˈluːkatʃ]
- ^ Lenin made his view known in a review he gave of Lukács' work: "Its Marxism is purely verbal; its distinction between defensive and offensive tactics is artificial; it gives no concrete analysis of precise and definite historical situations; it takes no account of what is most essential (the need to take over, and learn to take over, all fields of work and all institutions in which the bourgeoisie exercises its influence over the masses, etc.)"[33][34]
References
- ^ Georg Lukács: Neo-Kantian Aesthetics, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Georg Lukács, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- ISBN 978-0-684-17916-2.
- ^ Lichtheim 1970, p. ix.
- ^ a b c d György Lukács – Britannica.com
- ^ Benét's Reader's Encyclopedia (3rd ed.). Harper & Row. 1987. p. 588.
- ^ Leszek Kołakowski ([1981], 2008), Main Currents of Marxism, Vol. 3: The Breakdown, W. W. Norton & Company, Ch VII: "György Lukács: Reason in the Service of Dogma", W.W. Norton & Co.
- ^ Raddatz, Fritz J. (1972). Georg Lukács in Personal Testimonies and Photo documents. Hamburg.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Lunching under the Goya. Jewish Collectors in Budapest at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century, Konstantin Akinsha, Quest. Issues in Contemporary Jewish History
- ^ Júlia Bendl, "Lukács György élete a századfordulótól 1918-ig" Archived 13 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, 1994 (Hungarian)
- ^ L. Ferenc Lendvai, A fiatal Lukács: utja Marxhoz, 1902–1918, Argumentum, 2008, p. 46; István Hermann, Georg Lukács: sein Leben und Wirken, Böhlau, 1986, p. 44.
- ^ Lukács 1972, pp. ix–x: "On the other hand, the contradictions in my social and political views brought me intellectually into contact with Syndicalism and above all with the philosophy of George Sorel. ... My interest in Sorel was aroused by Ervin Szabó"
- ^ ISBN 978-0-393-32943-8.
- ISBN 978-3-7705-5653-3.
- OCLC 14194603. (2 volumes)
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- ^ a b Lopez, Daniel (19 January 2019). "The Conversion of Georg Lukács". Jacobin.
- ^ The hinterland of the white terror. Wien, 1920. Online: https://www.marxists.org/magyar/archive/lukacs/fth.htm
- ^ Népszava, 1919.04.15. Online: https://adtplus.arcanum.hu/hu/view/Nepszava_1919_04/?pg=0&layout=s
- ^ Georg Lukács. Revolutionäres Denken. Eine Einführung in Leben und Werk (hg. v. Frank Benseler), Darmstadt-Neuwied, 1984, p. 64.
- ^ Lengyel András: A "tizedeltető" Lukács. Egy politikai folklór-szüzsé történeti hátteréhez. In Forrás, 2017-01. Online: http://www.forrasfolyoirat.hu/1701/lengyel.pdf Archived 11 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine p. 75.
- ^ Váry Albert: A vörös uralom áldozatai Magyarországon (The victims of the Reds in Hungary. Online: http://mtdaportal.extra.hu/books/vary_albert_a_voros_uralom_aldozatai.pdf
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... confronted with Lenin's critique of his position as "ultra-Leftist" in 1920 ...
- ^ Lenin, V.I (1965) [First published June 1920]. "Kommunismus (Journal of the Communist International)". In Lenin, V.I (ed.). Collected Works. Vol. 31 (4th English ed.). Moscow: Progress Publishers. pp. 165–167.
- ^ Williams, Brian (10 February 2011). "Lenin versus the early Lukács". Socialist Action. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
Lenin's own summary on Lukács's position was: "Its Marxism is purely verbal; its distinction between defensive and offensive tactics is artificial; it gives no concrete analysis of precise and definite historical situations; it takes no account of what is most essential (the need to take over, and learn to take over, all fields of work and all institutions in which the bourgeoisie exercises its influence over the masses, etc.)"
- ISBN 0898754488.
- ISBN 978-0-393-32943-8.
- ISBN 978-0-393-32943-8.
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- ^ Tamás Aczél, Tibor Méray (1960), The revolt of the mind: a case history of intellectual resistance behind the Iron Curtain.[page needed]
- ^ ISBN 978-0-393-32943-8.
- ^ Woroszylski, Wiktor (1957), Diary of a revolt: Budapest through Polish eyes, Translated by Michael Segal, Sydney: Outlook, [pamphlet].
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- ^ ISBN 0-19-824570-X.
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- ISBN 978-1-78663-143-5.
- ^ G. Lukacs, The Theory of the Novel, London: Merlin Press, 1963, p. 70.
- hdl:10150/197263.
- ISBN 0262620278.
- ^ Gutov D., Learn, learn and learn. In: Make Everything New – A Project on Communism. Edited by Grant Watson, Gerrie van Noord & Gavin Everall. Published by Book Works and Project Arts Centre, Dublin, 2006 PP. 24–37.
- .
- ^ Bhattacharya, Ramkrishna. "Two Balzacs Two Gogols Two Tolstoys".
- ^ Lukács, György (1971) [1934]. "Healthy or Sick Art?" (PDF). Writer and Critic & Other Essays. Translated by Kahn, Arthur D. New York: The Universal Library.
- ISBN 9781501723308.
- ^ Lukács, György (1969) [1957]. "Critical and Socialist Realism" (PDF). The Meaning of Contemporary Realism. Translated by Mander, John & Necke. London: Merlin Press.
- ^ Lukács, György (1977) [1938]. "Realism in the Balance" (PDF). Aesthetics and Politics. Translated by Taylor, Ronald. London: Verso Books.
- ^ Lukács, György (1934). "Propaganda or Partisanship?". Partisan Review. Translated by Mins, Leonard F. New York: John Reed Club.
- ^ Lukács, György (1969). Solzhenitsyn (PDF). Translated by Graf, William David. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
- ^ Makarenko, Viktor Pavlovich (1992). "Critical and Socialist Realism". Marxism: Idea and Power. Rostov-on-Don: University of Rostov Publishing House.
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- Lichtheim, George (1970). George Lukács. Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-01909-0.
- Löwy, Michael, 1979. Georg Lukács—From Romanticism to Bolshevism. Trans. Patrick Chandler. London: NLB.
- Lukács, Georg (1972). History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-62020-8.
- Lukács, György (2001) "Realism in the Balance." In, Vincent B. Leitch (ed.). The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. New York: Norton. pp. 1033-1058. Archived 23 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine
- Marcus, Judith; Tarr, Zoltán (1989). Georg Lukács: Theory, Culture, and Politics. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-88738-244-4.
- Meszaros, Istvan, 1972. Lukács' Concept of Dialectic. London: ISBN 978-0850361599
- Anchor Books.
- ISBN 978-1859724224
- Sharma, Sunil, 1999. The Structuralist Philosophy of the Novel: a Marxist Perspective: a Critique of Georg Luckács [sic], Lucien Goldmann, Alan Swingewood & Michel Zéraffa. Delhi: S.S. Publishers.
- Snedeker, George, 2004. The Politics of Critical Theory: Language, Discourse, Society. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
- Continuum Books.
- Woroszylski, Wiktor, 1957. Diary of a revolt: Budapest through Polish eyes. Trans. Michael Segal. [Sydney: Outlook]. Pamphlet.
Further reading
- Furner, James. "Commodity Form Philosophy," in Marx on Capitalism: The Interaction-Recognition-Antinomy Thesis. (Leiden: Brill, 2018). pp. 85–128.
- Gerhardt, Christina. "Georg Lukács," The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest, 1500 to the Present. 8 vols. Ed. Immanuel Ness (Malden: Blackwell, 2009). 2135–2137.
- Hohendahl, Peter Uwe. "The Scholar, The Intellectual, And The Essay: Weber, Lukács, Adorno, And Postwar Germany," German Quarterly 70.3 (1997): 217–231.
- Hohendahl, Peter Uwe "Art Work And Modernity: The Legacy of Georg Lukács," New German Critique: An Interdisciplinary Journal of German Studies 42.(1987): 33–49.
- Hohendahl, Peter Uwe, and Blackwell Jeanine. "Georg Lukács in the GDR: On Recent Developments in Literary Theory," New German Critique: An Interdisciplinary Journal of German Studies 12.(1977): 169–174.
- Jameson, Fredric. Marxism and Form: Twentieth-century Dialectical Theories of Literature. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972.
- Morgan, W. John, 'Political Commissar and Cultural Critic: Georg Lukács'. Chapter 6 in Morgan, W. John, Communists on Education and Culture 1848–1948, Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, pp. 83–102. ISBN 0-333-48586-6
- Morgan, W. John, ‘Georg Lukács: cultural policy, Stalinism, and the Communist International.’ International Journal of Cultural Policy, 12 (3), 2006, pp. 257–271.
- Stern, L. "George Lukacs: An Intellectual Portrait," Dissent, vol. 5, no. 2 (Spring 1958), pp. 162–173.
External links
- Works by György Lukács at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about György Lukács at Internet Archive
- Georg Lukács Archive, Marxists website
- Guide to Literary Theory Archived 1 November 2005 at the Wayback Machine, Johns Hopkins University Press
- Georg Lukács, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Petri Liukkonen. "György Lukács". Books and Writers.
- Bendl Júlia, "Lukács György élete a századfordulótól 1918-ig"
- Lukács and Imre Lakatos
- Hungarian biography
- Georg Lukács Archive, Libertarian Communist Library
- Múlt-kor Történelmi portál (Past-Age Historic Portal): Lukács György was born 120 years ago (in Hungarian)
- Levee Blanc, "Georg Lukács: The Antinomies of Melancholy", Other Voices, Vol.1 no.1, 1998.
- Michael J. Thompson, "Lukacs Revisited" New Politics, 2001, Issue 30
- Realism in the Balance