India–Russia relations

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Russo-Indian relations
Map indicating locations of India and Russia

India
Russia
Diplomatic mission
Embassy of India, MoscowEmbassy of Russia, New Delhi
Envoy
Ambassador Pavan KapoorAmbassador Denis Alipov
President of Russia Vladimir Putin and Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi, at the 21st India-Russia Annual Summit in New Delhi, 2021.

India–Russia relations are the

multipolar world order in which both nations are "poles".[1]

Traditionally, the Indo-Russian strategic partnership has been built on five major components:

Indian Foreign Secretary Ranjan Mathai in Russia.[2]

The IRIGC (India-Russia Intergovernmental Commission) is the main body that conducts affairs at the governmental level between both countries.

SAARC with observer status in which India is a founding member.[6][7]

India is the second largest market for the

Trivandrum).[9]

According to a 2014 BBC World Service Poll, 85% of Russians view India positively, with only 9% expressing a negative view.[10] Similarly, a 2017 opinion poll by the Moscow-based non-governmental think tank Levada-Center states that Russians identified India as one of their top five "friends", with the others being Belarus, China, Kazakhstan and Syria.[11] Polls show that 60% of Indians support the Indian government's handling of the Russo-Ukrainian war.[12] A poll conducted in summer 2022 shows that Indians most frequently named Russia their most trusted partner, with 43% naming Russia as such compared to 27% who named the US.[13]

History

Goods uncovered from archaeological site such as

Persia, India and the Ottoman Empire. The documentation of his experiences during this journey is compiled in the book The Journey Beyond Three Seas (Khozheniye za tri morya).[15]

In the 18th century the Russian cities

Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb the commencement of trade relations in 1696.[16] Decades later, the Russian czar personally granted Anbu-Ram Mulin's Indian trading company the right to resolve property rights issues in Astrakhan, thus allowing Indians to bring in caravans with their linen fabrics, cottons, silks, and Indian, Persian and Uzbek cloth. The Astrakhan governor was ordered to show "kindness and goodwill" to the Indian merchants in Russia, who cherished their religious freedom and special trade privileges that they never had in other Eastern countries; until the middle of the 18th century, members of the community only paid 12 rubles a year as rent for a shop in the Indian Trading Compound, and were exempted from taxes and duties by the Russian authorities. The value of goods exported by them from Astrakhan into the interior cities of Russia in 1724 exceeded 104,000 rubles, amounting to nearly a quarter of all Astrakhan trade, until British occupation stopped independent Indian trade with Russia altogether.[15][17][18]

In 1801,

Tsar Paul ordered plans made for the invasion of British India by 22,000 Cossacks, which never actually occurred due to poor handling of preparations. The intention was that Russia would form an alliance with France, and attack the British Empire and its weak point using a French corps of 35,000 men and a Russian corps of 25,000 infantry and 10,000 mounted Cossacks. Some Cossacks had approached Orenburg when the tsar was assassinated. His successor Alexander I immediately cancelled the plans.[19]

The Embassy of India in Moscow (

Hindi: मॉस्को में भारत का दूतावास; Russian: Посольство Индии в России) was built in 1821, remodeled in 1896, and transferred to the Indian government in 1952 to become an embassy building.[20] The embassy consists of several buildings, including an aristocratic style "Chancery Building", a rational-modern style ambassador's residence, and a French style building known as "Napoleon's Dacha". The Chancery building was previously owned by an arts patron, a textile magnate, and the Soviet government, before being transferred to the Indian government in 1952 to become the embassy it is today.[6]

Embassy of Russia in New Delhi（

Balkanize India.[23]

India and the Soviet Union

Main article: India–Soviet Union relations
India–Soviet Union relations
Map indicating locations of India and USSR

India
Soviet Union
Soviet Ambassador Kirill Novikov arriving in New Delhi 1947 to establish formal diplomatic relations with India

India's official diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union were established in April 1947, shortly before it declared its independence from Great Britain. As Izvestia reported on April 15, 1947, “as a result of an exchange of letters between the Indian Ambassador to China, Mr. K. P. S. Menon and the Soviet Ambassador to China Apollon Petrov, it was established that the Government of the USSR and the Government of India will publish simultaneously in Moscow and New Delhi the following official statement: “In an effort to preserve and further strengthen the friendly relations existing between the USSR and India, the Government of the USSR and the Government of India have decided to exchange diplomatic representations at the rank of Embassies”.[24]

In 1951, the USSR exercised its veto power on the Kashmir dispute in support of India.[25] In 1953, Joseph Stalin told Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan that, "Both you and Mr. Nehru are persons whom we do not consider our enemies. This will continue to be our policy and you can count on our help."[26]

The relationship strengthened by 1955 and represented the successful the Soviet attempts to foster closer relations with countries belonging to the

First Secretary of the Communist Party Nikita Khrushchev's return trip to India happened in the fall of 1955. In India, Khrushchev announced that the Soviet Union supported Indian sovereignty over the disputed territory of the Kashmir region and also over Portuguese coastal enclaves such as Goa
.

The Soviet Union's strong relations with India had a negative impact upon both Soviet relations with the People's Republic of China and Indian relations with the PRC during the Khrushchev period. The Soviet Union declared its neutrality during the 1959 border dispute and the Sino-Indian War of October 1962, although the Chinese strongly objected. The Soviet Union gave India substantial economic and military assistance during the Khrushchev period, and by 1960, India had received more Soviet assistance than China had.[citation needed] This disparity became another point of contention in Sino-Soviet relations. In 1962 the Soviet Union agreed to transfer technology to co-produce the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 jet fighter in India, which the Soviet Union had earlier denied to China.[28]

In 1965, the Soviet Union successfully served as a peace broker between India and Pakistan after the

Council of Ministers, literally Premier of the Soviet Union, Alexei Kosygin, met with representatives of India and Pakistan and helped them negotiate an end to the military conflict over Kashmir
.

In 1971, the former East Pakistan region initiated an effort to secede from its political union with West Pakistan. India supported the secession, and the U.S. considered the possible entrance of China to further destabilize India in its taking up a moral leadership in the area. However, China, after the Sino-Indian War, did not want to participate in the United States' bid in supporting Yahya Khan's atrocities in present-day Bangladesh. Meanwhile, India's relationship with the Soviet Union grew strategically and resulted in the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation of August 1971. In December, it helped India halt American adventurism by using military power and end the conflict which ensured the victory of the secessionists in the establishment of the new state of Bangladesh.[29][30]

Relations between the Soviet Union and India did not suffer much during the right-wing Janata Party's coalition government in the late 1970s, although India did move to establish better economic and military relations with Western countries. To counter these efforts by India to diversify its relations, the Soviet Union proffered additional weaponry and economic assistance.

During the 1980s, despite the 1984 assassination by Sikh separatists of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, the mainstay of cordial Indian-Soviet relations, India maintained a close relationship with the Soviet Union. Indicating the high priority of relations with the Soviet Union in Indian foreign policy, the new Indian Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi, visited the Soviet Union on his first state visit abroad in May 1985 and signed two long-term economic agreements with the Soviet Union. According to Rejaul Karim Laskar, a scholar of Indian foreign policy, during this visit, Rajiv Gandhi developed a personal rapport with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev.[31] In turn, Gorbachev's first visit to a Third World state was his meeting with Rajiv Gandhi in New Delhi in late 1986. General Secretary Gorbachev unsuccessfully urged Rajiv Gandhi to help the Soviet Union set up an Asian collective security system. Gorbachev's advocacy of this proposal, which had also been made by Leonid Brezhnev, was an indication of continuing Soviet interest in using close relations with India as a means of containing China. With the improvement of Sino-Soviet relations in the late 1980s, containing China had less of a priority, but close relations with India remained important as an example of Gorbachev's new Third World policy.

Modern political relations

Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee with Russia's president Vladimir Putin in October 2000.
President of the Russian Federation, Mr. Vladimir Putin, in New Delhi
on 24 December 2012.

The first major political initiative, since the collapse of the Soviet Union, between India and Russia began with the Strategic Partnership signed between the two countries in 2000. President

SAARC with observer status in which India is a founding member.[7][6]

Russia currently is one of only two countries in the world (the other being Japan) that has a mechanism for annual ministerial-level defence reviews with India.[2] The Indo-Russian Inter-Governmental Commission (IRIGC) is one of the largest and most comprehensive governmental mechanisms that India has had with any country internationally. Almost every department from the Government of India attends it.[2]

Relations with India have always been and I am sure will be one of the most important foreign policy priorities of our country. Our mutual ties of friendship are filled with sympathy, and trust, and openness. And we must say frankly that they were never overshadowed by disagreements or conflict. This understanding - this is indeed the common heritage of our peoples. It is valued and cherished in our country, in Russia, and in India. And we are rightfully proud of so close, so close relations between our countries.

— Dmitry Medvedev, about relations with India[37]

We are confident that India lives in the hearts of every Russian. In the same way, I can assure you that Russia also lives in our souls as a Homeland, as people who share our emotions, our feelings of mutual respect and constant friendship. Long live our friendship!

— Pratibha Patil, about relations with Russia[37]

... India-Russia relationship is one of deep friendship and mutual confidence that would not be affected by transient political trends. Russia has been a pillar of strength at difficult moments in India's history. India will always reciprocate this support. Russia is and will remain our most important defense partner and a key partner for our energy security, both on nuclear energy and hydrocarbons,

— Pranab Mukherjee, about relations with Russia[38]
Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Russian President Vladimir Putin on 16 September 2022

In May 2022, Russian political scientist Sergey Karaganov, who is considered close to Vladimir Putin and Sergey Lavrov, stated that India figured extremely high on the agenda of the Russian foreign policy and strong India-Russia ties will help stabilise to New Delhi's ties with Beijing besides bringing a balance in Moscow's partnership with China.[39]

In November 2022, India's External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar praised Russia as "exceptionally steady" and "time-tested" partner.[40]

In January 2023, Russian Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Maria Zakharova backed India in its dispute with British national broadcaster BBC over a documentary critical of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, stating this was part of an “information war” against “global centers of power pursuing an independent policy”.[41]

After the start of

nuclear war threat from Russia.[46]

Putin addresses participants of the 15th BRICS summit held in South Africa via a video link in Moscow, 24 August 2023

Russia's new foreign policy concept after the Ukraine war proposes to deepen its relations with India and China as a counterweight to the West,

China-Russia relations.[47][48]

In June 2023, an event at India's embassy in Moscow called "Namaste Moscow" was held to facilitate cultural exchange between India and Russia.[51] In August 2023, the embassy held celebrations commemorating 76 years since Indian independence.[52]

In December 2023, India's External Affairs Minister S. Jaishenkar met Putin and Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov over a five-day visit, praising the two countries' "all-time high" trading volume, praising the trade as "balanced", "sustainable" and providing "fair market access".[53]

IRIGC

The Indo-Russian Inter-Governmental Commission (IRIGC) is the main body that conducts affairs at the governmental level between both countries.

Indian External Affairs Minister. The second part of the commission covers Military Technical Co-operation; this is co-chaired by the two countries respective Defence Ministers. Both parts of IRIGC meet annually.[3]

In addition, to the IRIGC there are other bodies that conduct economic relations between the two countries. These include, the Indo-Russian Forum on Trade and Investment, the India-Russia Business Council, the India-Russia Trade, Investment and Technology Promotion Council and the India-Russia Chamber of Commerce.[3]

An article penned by Vladimir Putin was published in The Times of India on 30 May 2017, a day before Prime Minister Narendra Modi's visit to Russia, to mark the 70th anniversary of the establishment of relations between India and the Russia on 13 April 1947.[54][55]

Military relationship

A meeting of the Russian-Indian intergovernmental commission on military and technical cooperation
Indian and Russian soldiers training during the Indra 2015 counter-terrorism exercise.

The Soviet Union was an important supplier of defence equipment for several decades, and this role has been inherited by the Russian federation. Between 2012 and 2016, Russia accounts for 68% of India's defense imports, and India and Russia have deepened their Make in India defence manufacturing cooperation by signing agreements for the construction of naval frigates, KA-226T twin-engine utility helicopters (joint venture (JV) to make 60 in Russia and 140 in India), Brahmos cruise missile (JV with 50.5% India and 49.5% Russia).[56] Between 2013 and 2018, Russia accounted for 62% of arms sales to India.[57] According to the SIPRI, Russia was the largest supplier of arms to India in both 2013–17 and 2018–22, but its share of total Indian arms imports fell from 64% to 45% while France emerged as the second largest supplier between 2018 and 2022.[58]

In 1997, Russia and India signed a ten-year agreement for further military-technical cooperation encompassed a wide range of activities, including the purchase of completed weaponry, joint development and production, and joint marketing of armaments and military technologies.

Multirole Transport Aircraft (MTA).[60] In 2012, both countries signed a defence deal worth $2.9 billion during President Putin's visit to India for the 42 new Sukhois to be produced under license by defence PSU Hindustan Aeronautics, which will add to the 230 Sukhois earlier contracted from Russia.[33] However, India finally withdrew from the joint stealth fighter project with Russia's Sukhoi in 2018.[61][62]

In October 2018, India inked the historic agreement worth US$5.43 billion with Russia to procure five

missile defence system in the world ignoring America's CAATSA act. The United States threatened India with sanctions over India's decision to buy the S-400 missile defense system from Russia.[63]

India and Russia have several major joint military programmes including:

Additionally, India has purchased/leased various military hardware from Russia:

  • S-400 Triumf
  • Kamov Ka-226
    200 to be made in India under the Make in India initiative.
  • T-90S Bhishma with over 1000 to be built in India
  • Akula-II
    nuclear submarine (2 to be leased with an option to buy when the lease expires)
  • INS Vikramaditya aircraft carrier programme
  • Tu-160 bombers (planned, not delivered)[64]
  • US$900 million upgrade of
    MiG-29
  • Mil Mi-17 (80 ordered) more in Service.
  • Phalcon radar
    )
  • The Farkhor Air Base in Tajikistan is currently jointly operated by Indian Air Force and Tajikistan Air Force.
The secretary of Russia's Security Council, Nikolai Patrushev, and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi in New Delhi on 29 March 2023

Russia said that despite the ongoing conflict with Ukraine, which caused international sanctions, it fulfilled its contractual obligations and delivered all weapon systems, including the S-400 air defense system, according to schedule. Also, Moscow said that they expect that serial production of AK 203 assault rifles in India will begin in late 2022- early 2023. Dmitry Shugaev, head of the Federal Service for Military Technical Cooperation (FSMTC), said that the Russian side was ready for cooperation and had already submitted proposals on the joint development and production of modern types of military equipment and actively uses the principle of "Make in India. At the Army-2022 forum, the Russian side declared its readiness for cooperation and presented proposals for the joint development and production of modern types of military equipment, namely, "the main battle tank of the future, infantry fighting vehicle, fifth-generation aircraft, diesel-electric submarines and other types of modern weapons."[65]

Russian President Vladimir Putin attended the Vostok-2022 [ru] military exercise in the Russian Far East. Beyond Russian troops, the exercises also included military forces from India, among others.[66]

In 2023, Russia and India have planned to hold several joint military exercises. Exercises will be held in the Southern Military District as part of the Indra military project, which was first implemented back in 2003. For the coming year, the countries have also planned to hold an event "AviaIndra".[67]

On 18 October 2022, the Director General of the Indian-Russian organization BrahMos informed Russian journalists about the timing of the test of the BrahMos NG missile being developed as part of a joint project. According to him, "missile tests are scheduled for 2024." At the moment, design engineers are working on a scheme of weapons. The defense of the project, as the chief director expects, should take place in Moscow at the site of the NPO Mashinostroeniya.[68]

In 2023, Russia plans to supply India with the frigate "Tushil" and the frigate "Tamala" of project 11356, created at the Baltic shipyard "Yantar". Initially, they were built for the Russian Navy, but due to Ukraine's refusal to provide engines, the ships are being prepared for the Indian side. The frigate "Tushil" was launched in October 2021, "Tamala" according to the plan will be launched at the end of 2022.[69]

Economic relations

Prime Minister Modi and President Putin at the World Diamond Conference in New Delhi in 2014

Bilateral trade between both countries is concentrated in key

industrial metals, petroleum products, coal, high-end tea and coffee products.[70] Bilateral trade in 2002 stood at $1.5 billion[71] and increased by over 7 times to $11 billion in 2012[72] and with both governments setting a bilateral trade target of $30 billion by 2025.[73][74][70] Bilateral bodies that conduct economic relations between the two countries include IRIGC, the Indo-Russian Forum on Trade and Investment, the India-Russia Business Council, the India-Russia Trade, Investment and Technology Promotion Council, the India-Russia CEOs' Council and the India-Russia Chamber of Commerce.[70][75]

Both Governments have jointly developed an economic strategy that involves using a number of economic components to increase future bilateral trade. These include development of an FTA between India & the

Essar & Alrosa will act as long term suppliers respectively.[77]

Russia has stated it will co-operate with India on its "

railways, highways, ports, interconnecting smart cities and industrial parks.[73] Russian President Vladimir Putin stated in an interview that one of his government's priorities was of building a smart city in India, "a smart city on the basis of Russian technologies."[81] AFK Sistema will likely be the primary Russian company involved in the project due to its previous experience in smart city projects in Ufa, Kazan and Rostov.[82]

Both countries have also agreed to work together in the aerospace sector to co-development and co-produce aircraft, examples include the

MTA and Kamov Ka-226.[79] Some of the co-developed aircraft will be jointly commercially exported to third countries and foreign markets e.g. FGFA and Kamov Ka-226. President of Russia's UAC Mikhail Pogosyan stated in an interview, "We are planning to sell in India about 100 passenger aircraft by 2030, which will account for 10 percent of the Indian market of airliners in the segment" and further stated, "The unprecedented scope of Russian-Indian cooperation in military aviation has created a scientific and engineering basis for undertaking joint projects in civil aviation."[79]

In 2023, Russia was the largest oil supplier to India with a 40% share.[83]

India is currently the

diamonds. Both countries have agreed to streamline their bilateral trade in diamonds through reductions in regulations and tariffs. Indian Prime Minister Modi stated in an interview, "I made three proposals to President Putin. First, I would like Alrosa to have direct long-term contracts with more Indian companies. I am pleased to know that they are moving in this direction. Second, I want Alrosa and others to trade directly on our diamond bourse. We have decided to create a Special Notified Zone where mining companies can trade diamonds on consignment basis and re-export unsold ones. Third, I asked to reform regulation so that Russia can send rough diamonds to India and reimport polished diamonds without extra duties".[84][85] Analysts predict through streamlined procedures and initiatives bilateral trade in this area will significantly increase.[80]

Russia has agreed to build more than 20

Sakhalin-1.[88] In a joint statement released by both governments they stated, "It is expected that Indian companies will strongly participate in projects related to new oil and gas fields in the territory of the Russian Federation. The sides will study the possibilities of building a hydrocarbon pipeline system, connecting the Russian Federation with India."[73]

Meeting of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) foreign ministers in New York City on 22 September 2022

Officials from both countries have discussed how to increase co-operation between their countries respective IT industries. Russian Minister of Communication Nikolai Nikiforov stated in an interview, "The development of IT products and software has traditionally been a strong point of India. We welcome possible joint projects in the field and closer contacts between Russian and Indian companies."[89]

Due to India simplifying recent

St. Petersburg issued 160,000 visas, an increase of over 50% compared to 2010.[90]

Both the countries set the investment target of $30 billion by 2025. Since they met the target by 2018, India and Russia expect to enhance the figure to $50 billion. India also proposed to set up a special economic zone for Russian companies.[citation needed]

On 5 September 2019, India pledged a

concessional loans) for the development of Russia's far east.[91]

In March 2022, when Western nations imposed economic sanctions on Russia in the aftermath of its

Indian Oil Corp. had reportedly reached a deal to buy 3 million barrels of oil from Russia's Rosneft at a 20% discount to global prices.[92][93]

On 2 August 2022, the Russian Ambassador to India announced the Indian side's interest in the presence on the Russian market, in particular, Indian pharmaceutical products, leather goods, textiles and agricultural goods.[94]

Russian imports from India amounted to $3.1 billion or 1% of its overall imports, and 0.7% of India's overall exports in 2014. The 10 major commodities exported from India to Russia were:[95][96]

Indian commodities exports to Russia (2014)[95][96]
Product category Quantity ($ million)
Pharmaceuticals $819.1
Electronic equipment $382.3
Machines, engines, pumps $159.4
Iron and steel $149.1
Clothing (not knit or crochet) $135.7
Coffee, tea and spices $131.7
Tobacco $113.9
Vehicles $111.1
Knit or crochet clothing $97.9
Other food preparations $77.7

Russian exports to India amounted to $6.2 billion or 1.3% of its overall exports, and 0.9% of India's overall imports in 2014. The 10 major commodities exported from Russia to India were:[97][98]

Russian commodities exports to India (2014)[97][98]
Product category Quantity ($ million)
Gems, precious metals, coins $1100.0
Machines, engines, pumps $707.4
Electronic equipment $472.7
Fertilizers $366.8
Medical, technical equipment $302.7
Oil $223.8
Iron and steel $167.4
Paper $136.8
Inorganic chemicals $127.4
Salt, sulphur, stone, cement $105.1

In just five months of 2022, bilateral trade between Russia and India reached a record growth of $18.229 billion. For comparison, last year this figure amounted to $13.124 billion, and the year before that – $8.141 billion. Now Russia has become India's seventh largest trading partner, having risen to this place from the 25th position it occupied last year. Russia's share in India's total trade volume increased to 3.54% compared to 1.27% in 2021–222.[99]

Russia and India are successfully cooperating in the banking sector. In 2010, the Russian Federation opened an office of Sberbank in New Delhi. Last year, the branch was capitalized and by now the equity of the branch has reached $100 million. In 2022, Russia received permission from the regulator in India to open a second office in Mumbai. The countries plan to implement the project in 2023.[100]

Free trade agreement

The formal process for the free trade agreement between India and the Eurasian Economic Union was begun at the 2014 Indo-Russian summit in New Delhi.
Signing of Indian-Russian documents at the 2015 Indo-Russian summit in Moscow.

Both governments have long viewed their bilateral trade well below its optimal potential, with the only long term way of rectifying this through having a Free trade agreement (FTA).[101][102] Both governments have set up a joint study group (JSG) to negotiate the specifications of an agreement, a final agreement would be signed between India and Eurasian Economic Union of which Russia is a part of (also including Kazakhstan, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan & Belarus).[103] Thereby, the Indo-Russian FTA would result in a much bigger free trade agreement including India, Russia, Kazakhstan, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan & Belarus.[101] It is predicted once an FTA is in place bilateral trade will increase manifold, thereby significantly increasing the importance of economics in bilateral ties.[101][104][105]

The table below shows the recent Indo-Russian bilateral trade performance:

Indo-Russian trade (2009–12)
Year Trade Volume (Billion $) Annual Change
2009 $7.46[72]
2010 $8.53[72] +14.34%
2011 $8.87[72] +3.98%
2012 $11.04[72] +24.50%

Co-operation in the energy sector

The energy sector is an important area in Indo-Russian bilateral relations. In 2001, ONGC-Videsh acquired 20% stake in the Sakhalin-I oil and gas project in the Russian Federation, and has invested about US$1.7 billion in the project. Gazprom, the Russian company, and Gas Authority of India have collaborated in joint development of a block in the Bay of Bengal. Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project with two units of 1000 MW each is a good example of Indo-Russian nuclear energy co-operation. Both sides have expressed interest in expanding cooperation in the energy sector.

In December 2008, Russia and India signed an agreement to build civilian nuclear reactors in India during a visit by the Russian president to New Delhi.[106]

During Russia's invasion of Ukraine, India imported a lot of discounted Russian oil, Russia rose to become India's second biggest supplier of oil in May, pushing Saudi Arabia into third place but still behind Iraq which remains No. 1, data from trade sources showed,[107] accounts for 18% of India's crude imports.[108] India increased its energy reliance with Russia in the aftermath of the Ukraine conflict, as imports for Russian liquid gas, crude oil and coal tripled to almost US$5 billion in the first half of 2022.[109] After January 2023, Russia has become India's top oil supplier, replacing Iraq. India's oil imports from Russia rose for the 5th straight month in November, accounting for 23% of India's overall import of 4 million bpd oil. This was 4% higher than imports from Russia in October.[110]

North–South Transport Corridor

Main article:
North–South Transport Corridor

The North–South Transport Corridor is the

Bandar Anzali etc.[112] Dry runs of two routes were conducted in 2014, the first was Mumbai to Baku via Bandar Abbas and the second was Mumbai to Astrakhan via Bandar Abbas, Tehran and Bandar Anzali. The objective of the study was to identify and address key bottlenecks.[113][114] The results showed transport costs were reduced by "$2,500 per 15 tons of cargo".[114] Other routes under consideration include via Armenia, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan
.

Science and technology

India and Russia have both signed agreements for the cooperation and use of GLONASS

The ongoing collaboration in the field of science & technology, under the Integrated Long-Term Programme of Co-operation (ILTP) is the largest co-operation programme in this sphere for both India and Russia. ILTP is coordinated by the

Ministry of Science and Education, and Ministry of Industry and Trade
from the Russian side. Development of SARAS Duet aircraft, semiconductor products, super computers, poly-vaccines, laser science and technology, seismology, high-purity materials, software & IT and Ayurveda have been some of the priority areas of co-operation under the ILTP. Under this programme, eight joint Indo-Russian centres have been established to focus on joint research and development work. Two other Joint Centres on Non-ferrous Metals and Accelerators and Lasers are being set up in India. A Joint Technology Centre based in Moscow to bring cutting-edge technologies to the market is also under processing. An ILTP Joint Council met in Moscow on 11–12 October 2007 to review co-operation and give it further direction. In August 2007, an MoU was signed between Department of Science and Technology and Russian Foundation of Basic Research, Moscow to pursue scientific co-operation.

In June 2010, the Russian-Indian Science and Technology Center (RI STC) was established in Moscow as a structure of effective innovative interaction in order to find forms of commercialization of the results of joint scientific and technical research. In April 2012, the official opening of the Delhi branch of the RI STC took place.[115]

Space co-operation

India's first Satellite Aryabhata was launched into space with the cooperation of the Soviet Union

There has been a long history of cooperation between the Soviet Union and India in space. Examples include

same name.[117] It was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975[116] from Kapustin Yar using a Kosmos-3M launch vehicle. The only Indian to visit space, Rakesh Sharma, was also launched by the Soviet Union under Interkosmos space program. During President Vladimir Putin's visit to India in December 2004, two space-related bilateral agreements were signed viz. Intergovernmental umbrella Agreement on co-operation in the outer space for peaceful purposes and the Inter Space Agency Agreement on co-operation in the Russian satellite navigation system GLONASS
. Subsequently, a number of follow-up agreements on GLONASS have been signed. In November 2007, the two countries have signed an agreement on joint lunar exploration. These space co-operation programmes are under implementation.
SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.[118]

In December 2021, Russia and India signed an agreement on measures to protect technologies in the field of space. The two countries agreed to expand and strengthen partnership relations between the Russian Roscosmos and the Indian Space Research Organization, as well as cooperation in the field of crewed space programs and satellite navigation. In addition, Russia and India planned to explore the prospects for developing cooperation in the field of launch vehicle development and planetary exploration.[119]

On 10 February 2020, Glavkosmos JSC and the Manned Space Flight Center of the Indian Space Research Organization, within the framework of an agreement to provide India with assistance in preparing for the launch of astronauts, began training Indian Air Force pilots. Indian astronaut candidates have undergone physical and medical training, studied the Russian language, designs, layouts and systems of the Soyuz crewed transport spacecraft. On 22 March 2021, the head of Roscosmos, Dmitry Rogozin, announced the completion of the Indian cosmonaut training program.[120]

In October 2022, Glavkosmos JSC supplied the Indian side with systems and equipment for the Gaganyaan crewed transport spacecraft, as well as individual equipment (spacesuits, armchairs and lodgments produced by the Russian JSC Zvezda Scientific and Production Enterprise) for Indian cosmonauts.[121]

Nuclear deals

Construction of the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in 2009

On 7 November 2009, India signed a new nuclear deal with Russia apart from the deals that were agreed upon by the two countries earlier.

MW each. A 1,000 MW reactor costs around $2.5 billion so the deal may touch $45 billion in worth.[123]

In November 2011, Russia and Bangladesh signed an intergovernmental agreement on cooperation in the construction of the first Bangladeshi NPP "Ruppur", consisting of two power units with Russian VVER type reactors with an electric capacity of 1200 MW each, the life cycle of which is 60 years, with the possibility of extension for another 20 years. On 23 December 2015, during the visit of Rosatom CEO Sergey Kiriyenko to Bangladesh, a general contract for the construction of the first Bangladeshi nuclear power plant was signed. At the beginning of 2017 Russia has provided India with a loan of $11.38 billion to finance the main stage of the NPP construction. The construction of the nuclear power plant began in 2021. Currently, work is underway on the first and second power units. Based on the latest schedule, the power units will be put into operation in February 2024 and at the end of the same year, respectively.[124]

Cooperation in the cultural sphere

Kareena Kapoor
.
Russian President Dmitry Medvedev
making his speech at the closing ceremony of The "Year of Russia in India" in 2008.

Indo–Russian relations in the field of culture are historical. One of the first Russian visitors to India was

Journey Beyond Three Seas.[125][126]

Astrakhan in Russia has historically been a trading centre for Indian merchants since the 16th century.[126] In 1722 Peter the Great met with Anbu-Ram the leader of the Indians merchants in Astrakhan. In the meeting Peter the Great agreed to Anbu-Ram's request for full free trade including transit rights.[126]

Nicholas Roerich with Jawaharlal Nehru and Indira Gandhi.

The first Russian translation of the Bhagavad Gita was published in 1788 by decree on the orders of Catherine the Great.[127] Russian pioneers who travelled to India and studied Indian culture include Gerasim Lebedev who studied ancient Indian languages in the 1780s[128][129] and later Nicholas Roerich who studied Indian philosophy.[130] Roerich was influenced by the philosophy of Ramakrishna and Vivekananda, the poetry of Rabindranath Tagore, and the Bhagavad Gita. The 130th birth anniversary of Nicholas Roerich and 100th birth anniversary of Svetoslav Roerich were celebrated in India in October 2004.

Leading Russian

Indus Script, Sanskrit and Indian literature.[128][131]

Traditionally, there has been strong collaboration in the field of

Kareena Kapoor during his state visit to India.[139][140] He stated in an interview, "Our country is one of the places where Indian culture is most admired" in addition stated, "Russia and India are the only countries where satellite channels broadcast Indian movies 24/7."[139]

Constantin Stanislavski who was significantly influenced by Yoga and Indian philosophy.[127][143][144]

Russia's Rossotrudnichestvo Representative Office (RRO) established in 1965 has five Russian Centres of Science and Culture (RCSC) in India they include

University of Moscow along with five Chairs relating to Indology in Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Kazan and Vladivostok
.

Days of Russian Culture were held in India in November 2003, in Delhi, Kolkata and Mumbai. "Days of Indian Culture" in Russia were organised from September to October 2005 in Russia. Chief Minister of National Capital Territory of Delhi led a delegation for participating in the event "Days of Delhi in Moscow" from 28 May to 1 June 2006. The "Year of Russia in India" was held in 2008. It was followed by the "Year of India in Russia" in 2009.

In the period from 2018 to 2019, the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the Russian organization ROSSCONCERT. The document opened the possibility for troupes of artists from both countries to visit India and Russia alternately. In 2019, four groups from India – "Kathak", "Hindustani Kalari", "Bollywood" and "Shehnai" visited a number of regions of the Russian Federation. In addition, Indian-Russian working groups and a cultural exchange program have been established, which also meet the cultural and tourist needs of both countries.[149]

See also

References

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Further reading

  • Azizian, Rouben. Russia-India Relations: Stability Amidst Strategic Uncertainty (ASIA-PACIFIC CENTER FOR SECURITY STUDIES, 2004) online.
  • Bakshi, Jyotsna. "Russian Policy towards South Asia." Strategic Analysis 23.8 (1999): 1367–1398.
  • Budhwar, Prem K. "India-Russia relations: Past, Present and the future." India Quarterly 63.3 (2007): 51–83.
  • Chavda, V. K. India, Britain, Russia; a study in British opinion, 1838-1878 (1967) online
  • Choudhury, G.W. India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the Major Powers: Politics of a Divided Subcontinent (1975), relations with US, USSR and China.
  • Chufrin, Gennady, ed. Russia and Asia: The Emerging Security Agenda (Sweden: SIPRI, 1999),
  • Clark, Ian. "Soviet policy towards India and Pakistan, 1965-71." (PhD dissertation. Australian National U. 2013), with long bibliography p 290–303; online.
  • Clarkson, Stephen. “Non-Impact of Soviet Writing on Indian Thinking and Policy.” Economic and Political Weekly 8#15 1973, pp. 715–724. online; says Indian intellectuals ignored Russian propaganda
  • Dash, P. L. and Andrei Nazarkin, eds. Indo-Russian Diplomatic Relations: Sixty Years of Enduring Legacy (New Delhi: Academic Excellence Publishers, 2008), essays by experts.
  • Donaldson, Robert H. "The Soviet Union in South Asia: A Friend to Rely On?" Journal of International Affairs (1981) 34#2 pp 235–58.
  • Donaldson, Robert H. Soviet Policy Toward India: Ideology and Strategy (Harvard UP, 1974) online
  • Hilger, Andreas. "The Soviet Union and India: the Khrushchev era and its aftermath until 1966." (2009) online.
  • Hilali, A. Z. "Cold war politics of superpowers in South Asia." The Dialogue 1.2 (2006): 68–108. online
  • Hirsch, Michal Ben‑Josef, and Manjari Chatterjee Miller. "Otherness and resilience in bilateral relations: the cases of Israel‒Germany, India‒Russia, and India‒Israel." Journal Of International Relations and Development (2020) online.
  • Joshi, Nirmala, and Raj Kumar Sharma. "India–Russia relations in a changing Eurasian perspective." India Quarterly 73.1 (2017): 36–52.
  • Khan, Muhammad Nawaz. "Pakistan-Russia Relations Redux: From Estrangement to Pragmatism." IPRI Journal 19.1 (2019).
  • Mastny, Vojtech. "The Soviet Union's Partnership with India." Journal of Cold War Studies (2010) 12#3 pp 50–90.
  • Menon, Rajan. "India and Russia." in David M. Malone, et al. eds. The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy (2015) excerpt pp 509–523.
  • Mollick, Enamul Haque. "India–Russia Relations After The Cold War." in Impact Of Pandemic On India's International Relations (2021): 93+.
  • Nadkarni, Vidya. "India and Russia: The End of a Special Relationship?." Naval War College Review 48.4 (1995): 19–33. online
  • Naik, J. A. Russia's policy towards India: from Stalin to Yeltsin (1995).
  • Pant, Harsh V. "India-Russia Ties and India's Strategic Culture: Dominance of a Realist Worldview." India Review 12.1 (2013): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/14736489.2013.759464
  • Rekha, Chandra. India-Russia Post Cold War Relations: A New Epoch of Cooperation (London: Taylor & Francis, 2017).
  • Rothermund, Dietmar. "India and the Soviet Union." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 386.1 (1969): 78–88.
  • Samra, Chattar Singh. India and Anglo-Soviet Relations (1917-1947) (Asia Publishing House, 1959).
  • Singh, Anita Inder. "India's relations with Russia and Central Asia." International Affairs 71.1 (1995): 69–81.
  • Soherwordi, Hussain Shaheed, and Uzma Munshi. "China-Russia-Pakistan Strategic Triangle: Imperative Factors." South Asian Studies (1026-678X) 35.1 (2020) online.
  • Stein, Arthur. India and the Soviet Union: The Nehru Era (U of Chicago Press, 1969). online
  • Stein, Arthur. "India and the USSR: The post-Nehru period." Asian Survey (1967): 165–175. online
  • Tsan, Katherine Foshko. "Re-Energizing the Indian-Russian Relationship: Opportunities and Challenges for the 21st Century." Jindal Journal of International Affairs 2.1 (2012): 141–184. online Archived 24 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine
  • Unnikrishnan, Nandan. "The enduring relevance of India-Russia relations." Observer Research Foundation 25 (2017). online

Economics

  • Datar, Asha L. India's Economic Relations with the USSR and Eastern Europe 1953 to 1969 (Cambridge University Press, 1972).
  • Kapoor, Nivedita. "India-Russia ties in a changing world order: In pursuit of a special strategic partnership." ORF Occasional Paper 218 (2019): 1-33. online
  • Lyalina, Pauline Albertovna, et al. "Interaction between Russia and India in the field of hydrocarbon logistics." Journal of Social Sciences Research (2018): 440–447.
  • Manshin, Roman V., and Abdul Latif Ghafari. "Investment cooperation between Russia and India." RUDN Journal of Economics 29.3 (2021): 490–501.
  • Singh, Mayengbam Lalit, and Chingshubam Manimohon Singh. "Has EU's Sanctions on Russia Led to Greater Bilateral Trade between India and Russia? A Simulation Analysis." FOCUS: Journal of International Business 8.2 (2021): 112–128.
  • Wani, Nassir Ul Haq, Jasdeep Kaur Dhami, and Neeru Sidana. "Indo-Russia Trade: An Evaluation of Symmetry, Complementarity, Intensity and Similarity." Management 3.1 (2020): 14–33.

Primary sources

  • Naik, J. A, ed. India and the communist countries : documents, 1976-1978 (1981) online
  • Prasad, Bimal, ed. Indo-Soviet Relations, 1947–1972: A Documentary Study (Bombay: Allied Publishers, 1973)

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=India–Russia_relations&oldid=1222023656"