Soft power
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In
Nye popularised the term in his 1990 book, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power.[2]
In this book he wrote: "when one country gets other countries to want what it wants might be called co-optive or soft power in contrast with the hard or command power of ordering others to do what it wants".[2] He further developed the concept in his 2004 book, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics.[3]
Description
The Oxford English Dictionary records the phrase "soft power" (meaning "power (of a nation, state, alliance, etc.) deriving from economic and cultural influence, rather than coercion or military strength") from 1985.[4] Joseph Nye popularized the concept of "soft power" in the late 1980s.[5] For Nye, power is the ability to influence the behavior of others to get the outcomes you want. There are several ways one can achieve this: one can coerce others with threats; one can induce them with payments; or one can attract and co-opt them to want what one wants. This soft power – getting others to want the outcomes one wants – co-opts people rather than coerces them.[2]
Soft power contrasts with "hard power" - the use of coercion and payment. Soft power can be wielded not just by states but also by all actors in international politics, such as NGOs or international institutions.[3] It is also considered by some an example of the "second face of power"[6] that indirectly allows one to obtain the outcomes one wants.[7][8] A country's soft power, according to Nye, rests on three resources: "its culture (in places where it is attractive to others), its political values (when it lives up to them at home and abroad), and its foreign policies (when others see them as legitimate and having moral authority)."[9]
"A country may obtain the outcomes it wants in world politics because other countries – admiring its values, emulating its example, aspiring to its level of prosperity and openness – want to follow it. In this sense, it is also important to set the agenda and attract others in world politics, and not only to force them to change by threatening military force or economic sanctions. This soft power – getting others to want the outcomes that you want – co-opts people rather than coerces them."[3]
Soft power resources are the assets that produce attraction, which often leads to acquiescence.[3] Nye asserts that, "Seduction is always more effective than coercion, and many values like democracy, human rights, and individual opportunities are deeply seductive."[10] Angelo Codevilla observed that an often overlooked essential aspect of soft power is that different parts of populations are attracted or repelled by different things, ideas, images, or prospects.[11] Soft power is hampered when policies, culture, or values repel others instead of attracting them.
In his book, Nye argues that soft power is a more difficult instrument for governments to wield than hard power for two reasons: many of its critical resources are outside the control of governments, and soft power tends to "work indirectly by shaping the environment for policy, and sometimes takes years to produce the desired outcomes."[10][12] The book identifies three broad categories of soft power: "culture", "political values", and "policies."
In The Future of Power (2011), Nye reiterates that soft power is a descriptive, rather than a normative, concept.
Limitations of the concept
This section needs additional citations for verification. (March 2016) |
Soft power has been criticized as being ineffective by authors such as Niall Ferguson in the preface to Colossus. Neorealist and other rationalist and neorationalist authors (with the exception of Stephen Walt) dismiss soft power out of hand as they assert that actors in international relations respond to only two types of incentives: economic incentives and force.
As a concept, it can be difficult to distinguish soft power from hard power. For example, Janice Bially Mattern argues that George W. Bush's use of the phrase "you are either with us or with the terrorists" was in fact an exercise of hard power. Though military and economic force was not used to pressure other states to join its coalition, a kind of force – representational force – was used. This kind of force threatens the identity of its partners, forcing them to comply or risk being labeled as evil. This being the case, soft power is therefore not so soft.[15]
There are also recent articles about the concept's neglect of its defensive use. Since Nye's approach "mainly focuses on how to get others to do your bidding", some researchers argued that rising powers, such as China, are creating new approaches to soft power, thus using it defensively.[16]
Additionally, others have argued that more attention needs to be paid towards locating and understanding how actors' attempts at soft power can backfire, leading to reputational damage or loss, or what has been termed 'soft disempowerment'.[17]
Similarly, scholars such as Dr. Amit Kumar Gupta have identified flaw in the definition provided by Joseph S Nye Jr.[18] and have made an effort to redefine the concept. Citing Nye’s definition, the author points out that, “a country’s behaviour in the international platform is not in the least determined by the other parties’ attraction in soft power terms. Every country weighs its interest and follows its convictions before taking any decision.” [19]Veritably, two new concepts have been coined by the author, namely, ‘Positive Soft Power’ and ‘Negative Soft Power’, to do away with the glitch that exists in the definition provided by Joseph S Nye Jr.[20]
Measurement
The first attempt to measure soft power through a composite index was created and published by the
The Soft Power 30, which includes a foreword by Joseph Nye, is a ranking of countries' soft power produced and published by the media company Portland in 2015. The ranking is based on "the quality of a country's political institutions, the extent of their cultural appeal, the strength of their diplomatic network, the global reputation of their higher education system, the attractiveness of their economic model, and a country's digital engagement with the world."[23][24][25]
The Elcano Global Presence Report scores the EU first for soft presence.[26] Soft power, then, represents the third behavioral way of getting the outcomes you want. Soft power is contrasted with hard power, which has historically been the predominant realist measure of national power, through quantitative metrics such as population size, concrete military assets, or a nation's gross domestic product. But having such resources does not always produce the desired outcomes, as the United States discovered in the Vietnam War.
The success of soft power heavily depends on the actor's
Brand Finance's Global Soft Power 2023[30] |
ISSF's World Soft Power Index 2023[31] |
Monocle's Soft Power Survey 2022[32][33] |
Portland's The Soft Power 30 Report 2019[34] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Research
Academics have engaged in several debates around soft power. These have included:
- Its usefulness (Giulio Gallarotti, Niall Ferguson, Josef Joffe, Robert Kagan, Ken Waltz, Mearsheimer vs Nye, Katzenstein, Janice Bially Mattern, Jacques Hymans, Alexander Vuving, Jan Mellisen)
- How soft power and hard power interact (Giulio Gallarotti, Joseph Nye)
- Whether soft power can be coercive or manipulative, (Janice Bially Mattern, Katzenstein, Duvall & Barnet vs Nye, Vuving)
- How the relationship between structure and agency work (Hymans vs Nye)
- Whether soft balancing is occurring (Wohlforth & Brooks vs Walt et al.)
- Soft power and normative power in Europe (Ian Manners, A Ciambra, Thomas Diez, A Hyde Pryce, Richard Whitman)
- How civil resistance (i.e., non-violent forms of resistance) can often involve certain uses of soft power, but remains a distinct concept (Adam Roberts, Timothy Garton Ash)
Examples
Worldwide
The Soviet Union competed with the U.S. for influence throughout the
A number of non-democratic governments have attempted to use migration as an instrument of soft power: Egypt under the rule of Gamal Abdel Nasser trained and dispatched thousands of teachers across the Arab world in an effort to spread ideas of anti-colonialism and anti-Zionism.[37] In Cuba, the Fidel Castro regime's medical internationalism programme has dispatched thousands of medical professionals abroad for cultural diplomacy purposes.[38] The Chinese-sponsored Confucius Institutes across the world rely on Chinese teachers in order to strengthen the country's soft power abroad.[39]
The United States and Europe have consistently been sources of influence and soft power.
Asia and more recently China have been working to use the potential soft power assets that are present in the admiration of their ancient cultures, arts, fashion and cuisine.[48] China is presenting itself as a defender of national sovereignty,[49] which became an issue after the NATO air campaign to oust Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and NATO's support of the rebels in Libya.[50] The Chinese are also competing with the United States to gain influence throughout the South Pacific, however some commentators have said their recent assertiveness in this region has created an appeal for nations in this region to align with the United States thus increasing U.S. soft power in this area.[51]
Soft power extends beyond the operations of government, to the activities of the private sector and to society and culture at large.[52] Soft power has gained more influence because it addresses the underlying dispositions of the people who have increasingly become more active in their governments.[11] This is true even in authoritarian countries where people and institutions are increasingly able to shape the debate.[53]
Middle East
The Middle East has been an area in which soft power has been employed by both regional and outside actors. Small states, such as Qatar, frequently employ soft-power strategies, including the use of al-Jazeera and the hosting of sports events, in their foreign policymaking.[54] Outside powers, such as the United States or China, also employ soft power in terms of expanding their influence across the Middle East.[55][56] Competition amongst states of the Middle East often involves the use of soft power, as in the case of Egyptian-Israeli rivalry over Africa,[57] or Saudi-Iranian relations.[58]
China
China's traditional culture has been a source of attraction, building on which it has created several hundred Confucius Institutes around the world to teach its language and culture. The enrollment of foreign students in China has increased from 36,000 a decade before to at least 240,000 in 2010.[59] China is the most popular country in Asia for international students,[60] the leading destination globally for Anglophone African students,[61] and the second most popular education powerhouse in the world.[62] China's Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank has attracted many western countries to join.[63] China has the largest diplomatic network in the world, overtaking the US in 2019.[44][43] The provision of Chinese medical aid during the COVID-19 pandemic has been dubbed "facemask diplomacy".[64]
France
According to a 2018 study in the American Sociological Review, France had greater influence on European geopolitics than Britain in the 18th century because of its cultural and symbolic power.[66]
Germany
The annual soft power rankings by Monocle magazine and the Institute for Government ranks 30 countries which "best attract favor from other nations through culture, sport, cuisine, design, diplomacy and beyond." Monocle magazine said: "Merkel may be painted as a stern taskmaster but it seems she has a softer side, or the country she leads does." It said Germany's rise as a soft power should not come as a surprise. "The country is traditionally excellent at pursuing its ideas, values and aims using diplomatic, cultural and economic tools," it said. "By quietly doing the simple things well it is a country that has become a global power and the rest of us can feel comfortable with that." Germans had been understandably wary about depicting a dominant image abroad, the magazine added, but it said that the country's rise should not make everyone else feel uncomfortable.[67][68][69] In 2017, Germany had the eighth largest diplomatic network in the world.[43]
Italy
The elements of Italian soft culture are its art, music, fashion, design, and food. Italy was the birthplace of opera,[70] and for generations the language of opera was Italian. Popular tastes in drama in Italy have long favored comedy; the improvisational style known as the Commedia dell'arte began in Italy in the mid-16th century[71] and is still performed today. Before being exported to France and Russia, Ballet also originated in Italy. The country boasts several world-famous cities:
Japan
"Cool Japan" is a concept coined in 2002 as an expression of Japan's popular culture. The concept has been adopted by the Japanese government as well as trade bodies seeking to exploit the commercial capital of the country's culture industry.[77][78] It has been described as a form of soft power, "the ability to indirectly influence behavior or interests through cultural or ideological means."[79] In a 2002 article in the journal Foreign Policy titled "Japan's Gross National Cool", Douglas McGray wrote of Japan "reinventing superpower" as its cultural influence expanded internationally despite the economic and political problems of the "lost decade." Surveying youth culture and the role of J-pop, manga, anime, video game, fashion, film, automobiles, consumer electronics, architecture, and cuisine, McGray highlighted Japan's considerable soft power, posing the question of what message the country might project. He also argued that Japan's recession may even have boosted its national cool, due to the partial discrediting of erstwhile rigid social hierarchies and big-business career paths.[80] In 2015, during remarks welcoming Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe to the White House, President Barack Obama thanked Japan for its cultural contributions to the United States by saying:
This visit is a celebration of the ties of friendship and family that bind our peoples. I first felt it when I was 6 years old when my mother took me to Japan. I felt it growing up in Hawaii, like communities across our country, home to so many proud Japanese Americans... Today is also a chance for Americans, especially our young people, to say thank you for all the things we love from Japan. Like
emojis.[81]
In 2017, Japan had the fifth largest diplomatic network in the world.[43] Anime, manga and Japanese films are considered to be soft power. In April 2023, the Japan Business Federation laid out a proposal aiming to spur the economic growth of Japan by further promoting the contents industry abroad, primarily anime, manga and video games, for measures to invite industry experts from abroad to come to Japan to work, and to link with the tourism sector to help foreign fans of manga and anime visit sites across the country associated with particular manga stories. The federation seeks on quadrupling the sales of Japanese content in overseas markets within the upcoming 10 years.[82][83] Today, the culture of Japan stands as one of the most influential cultures around the world, mainly because of the global reach of its popular culture.[84][85][86][87][88][89]
Russia
This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: this section may have to be updated due to the impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. (November 2023) |
Russia has been developing its soft power by investing in various public diplomacy instruments throughout the 2000s
South Korea
As is clear with the recent rise of Psy's "Korean pop music, Korean culture
is making its mark on the world.
—United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon[97]
"Hallyu", also known as the "Korean Wave", is a neologism referring to the spread of South Korean culture since the late 1990s. According to a Washington Post reporter, the spread of South Korean entertainment has led to higher sales of other goods and services such as food, clothing, and Korean language classes.[98] Besides increasing the amount of exports, the Korean Wave is used by the government as a soft power tool to engage with the masses of young people all over the world,[99] and to try reduce anti-Korean sentiment.[100]
In the 21st century, culture is power.
— Former South Korean president Park Geun-hye.[101]
In 2012, the BBC's country rating poll revealed that public opinion of South Korea has been improving every year since the first rating poll for the country was conducted in 2009. In several countries such as Russia, India, China and France, public opinion of South Korea turned from slightly negative to generally positive. The report cited culture and tradition as among the most important factors contributing to positive perceptions of South Korea.[102] This comes alongside a rapid growth in the total value of cultural exports which rose to US$4.2 billion in 2011.[103][104]
First driven by the spread of
Spain
The main power of the
Since the so-called
United Kingdom
Since the 1814–1914 century of Pax Britannica the foreign relations of the United Kingdom has held a significant soft power component.[112][113][114]
British influence can be observed in the legal and political systems of many of its
United States
The
Studies of American broadcasting into the
Satellite TV is actively promoting American soft power in the Arab world in ways that the United States has been incapable of doing. The launch of the Arabic-language Alhurra satellite channel in early 2004 to provide news and entertainment in ways more beneficial to the U.S., marked an important turning point in U.S. public diplomacy development. Though it calls itself the largest Arabic-language news organization in the world, the Virginia-based Alhurra lacks the cachet and brand recognition of Al Jazeera, but its balanced presentation of news has earned it a small but significant viewership. Controversial innovations in radio broadcasting that target young mass audiences through a mix of light news and mild American popular music – Radio Sawa in Arabic and Radio Farda in Persian – have captured a substantial market share in their target regions.[12]
See also
References
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Further reading
- Chitty, Naren, Lilian Ji, and Gary Rawnsley, eds. (2023). The Routledge Handbook of Soft Power 2nd Edition, NY: Routledge.
- fast-food brands including Coca-Cola and McDonald's.
- Gallarotti, Giulio (2010). Cosmopolitan Power in International Relations: A Synthesis of Realism, Neoliberalism, and Constructivism, NY: Cambridge University Press. How hard and soft power can be combined to optimize national power.
- Kurlantzick, Joshua (2007). Charm Offensive: How China's Soft Power Is Transforming the World, Yale University Press. Analysis of China's use of soft power to gain influence in the world's political arena.
- Lukes, Steven (2007). "Power and the Battle For Hearts and Minds: On the Bluntness of Soft Power", in Berenskoetter, Felix and M.J. Williams, eds. (2007), Power in World Politics, Routledge.
- Manners, Ian (2002). "Normative Power Europe: A Contradiction in Terms?" (PDF). JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies. 40 (2): 235–258. S2CID 145569196.
- Mattern, Janice Bially (2006). "Why Soft Power Isn't So Soft", in Berenskoetter & Williams (see under "Lukes")
- McCormick, John (2007). The European Superpower, Palgrave Macmillan. Argues that the European Union has used soft power effectively to emerge as an alternative and as a competitor to the heavy reliance of the US on hard power.
- Nye, Joseph (2007). "Notes For a Soft Power Research Agenda", in Berenskoetter & Williams (see under "Lukes")
- Nye, Joseph (2008). The Powers to Lead, NY Oxford University Press.
- Nye, Joseph (2021) "Soft power: the evolution of a concept." Journal of Political Power
- Onuf, Nicholas (2017). "The Power of Metaphor/the Metaphor of Power", in The Journal of International Communication, 23,1.
- Ohnesorge, Hendrik W. (2020). Soft Power: The Forces of Attraction in International Relations, Springer International.
- Parmar, Inderjeet and Michael Cox, eds. (2010). Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, Routledge.
- Surowiec, Pawel, and Philip Long. "Hybridity and Soft Power Statecraft: The 'GREAT' Campaign." Diplomacy & Statecraft 31:1 (2020): 1-28. doi:10.1080/09592296.2020.1721092. O’Loughlin, Ben (22 October 2020). "H-Diplo Article Review 989". Archived(PDF) from the original on Apr 22, 2023.
- Young Nam Cho and Jong Ho Jeong, "China's Soft Power", Asia Survey 48, 3, pp. 453–72.
External links
- Soft Power Committee 'Persuasion and Power' report UK Parliament
- Barack Obama & the use of soft power
- Global Power Barometer
- Is China's new communications worldview coming of age? David Bandurski
- The Benefits of Soft Power Archived 2006-03-20 at the Wayback Machine
- Simulation and Soft Power
- Soft Power, Smart Power and Intelligent Power A lecture in honor of Joseph Nye
- Scandal Erodes China's Soft Power, Frank Ching