Arab–Israeli conflict
Arab–Israeli conflict | |||||||||
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The main parties in the Arab–Israeli conflict Israel West Bank and Gaza Strip Egypt Jordan Lebanon Syria Iraq | |||||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||||
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Hamas (1988–present) Supported by: Soviet Union (1967–1991)[15] | ||||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
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Casualties and losses | |||||||||
22,570 military deaths[17] 1,723 civilian deaths[17] 1,050 SLA militiamen deaths[18] |
91,105 (1948-2016) Israel-Hamas war 130,413 total Arab deaths |
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Arab–Israeli conflict |
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The Arab–Israeli conflict is the phenomenon involving political tension, military conflicts, and other disputes between various Arab countries and Israel, which escalated during the 20th century. The roots of the Arab–Israeli conflict have been attributed to the support by Arab League member countries for the Palestinians, a fellow League member, in the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict; this in turn has been attributed to the simultaneous rise of Zionism and Arab nationalism towards the end of the 19th century, though the two national movements had not clashed until the 1920s.
Part of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict arose from the conflicting claims by these movements to the land that formed the British Mandatory Palestine, which was regarded by the Jewish people as their ancestral homeland, while at the same time it was regarded by the Pan-Arab movement as historically and currently belonging to the Palestinian Arabs,[20] and in the Pan-Islamic context, as Muslim lands. The sectarian conflict within the British Mandate territory between Palestinian Jews and Arabs escalated into a full-scale Palestinian civil war in 1947. Taking the side of the Palestinian Arabs, especially following the Israeli Declaration of Independence, the neighbouring Arab countries invaded the by-then former Mandate territory in May 1948, commencing the First Arab–Israeli War. Large-scale hostilities mostly ended with ceasefire agreements after the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Peace agreements were signed between Israel and Egypt in 1979, resulting in Israeli withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula and the abolition of the military governance system in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, in favor of Israeli Civil Administration and consequent unilateral annexation of the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem.
The nature of the conflict has shifted over the years from the large-scale, regional Arab–Israeli conflict to a more local Israeli–Palestinian conflict, which peaked during the
The
Background
National movements
The roots of the modern Arab–Israeli conflict lie in the tensions between
In the late 19th century European and Middle Eastern Jewish communities began to increasingly immigrate to Palestine and purchase land from the local Ottoman landlords. The population of the late 19th century in Palestine reached 600,000 – mostly Muslim Arabs, but also significant minorities of Jews, Christians, Druze and some Samaritans and Baháʼís. At that time, Jerusalem did not extend beyond the walled area and had a population of only a few tens of thousands. Collective farms, known as kibbutzim, were established, as was the first entirely Jewish city in modern times, Tel Aviv.
During 1915–16, as World War I was underway, the British High Commissioner in Egypt, Sir Henry McMahon, secretly corresponded with
Sectarian conflict in Mandatory Palestine
First mandate years and the Franco-Syrian war
In 1917, Palestine was conquered by the British forces (including the Jewish Legion). The British government issued the Balfour Declaration, which stated that the government viewed favorably "the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people" but "that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine". The Declaration was issued as a result of the belief of key members of the government, including Prime Minister David Lloyd George, that Jewish support was essential to winning the war; however, the declaration caused great disquiet in the Arab world.[24] After the war, the area came under British rule as the British Mandate of Palestine. The area mandated to the British in 1923 included what is today Israel, the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Transjordan eventually was carved into a separate British protectorate – the Emirate of Transjordan, which gained an autonomous status in 1928 and achieved complete independence in 1946 with the approval by the United Nations of the end of the British Mandate.
A major crisis among the Arab nationalists took place with the failed establishment of the Arab Kingdom of Syria in 1920. With the disastrous outcome of the Franco-Syrian War, the self-proclaimed Hashemite kingdom with its capital in Damascus was defeated and the Hashemite ruler took refuge in Mandatory Iraq. The crisis saw the first confrontation of nationalist Arab and Jewish forces, taking place in the Battle of Tel Hai in March 1920, but more importantly the collapse of the pan-Arabist kingdom led to the establishment of the local Palestinian version of Arab nationalism, with the return of Amin al-Husseini from Damascus to Jerusalem in late 1920.
At this point in time
1929 events
1930s and 1940s
By 1931, 17 percent of the population of Mandatory Palestine were Jews, an increase of six percent since 1922.[28] Jewish immigration peaked soon after the Nazis came to power in Germany, causing the Jewish population in British Palestine to double.[29]
In the mid-1930s
In response to Arab pressure,
Civil war in Mandatory Palestine
In the weeks prior to the end of the mandate the
Early in 1948 the United Kingdom announced its firm intention to terminate its mandate in Palestine on 14 May. unfortunately, it has become clear that the partition plan cannot be carried out at this time by peaceful means. ... unless emergency action is taken, there will be no public authority in Palestine on that date capable of preserving law and order. Violence and bloodshed will descend upon the Holy Land. Large-scale fighting among the people of that country will be the inevitable result.[39]
History
1948 Arab–Israeli War
On 14 May 1948, the day on which the British Mandate over Palestine expired, the
There was no mention of the borders of the new state other than that it was in Eretz Israel. An official cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the UN Secretary-General on 15 May 1948 stated publicly that Arab Governments found "themselves compelled to intervene for the sole purpose of restoring peace and security and establishing law and order in Palestine" (Clause 10(e)). Further in Clause 10(e):
The Governments of the Arab States hereby confirm at this stage the view that had been repeatedly declared by them on previous occasions, such as the London Conference and before the United Nations mainly, the only fair and just solution to the problem of Palestine is the creation of United State of Palestine based upon the democratic principles ...
That day, the armies of
The status of Jewish citizens in Arab states worsened during the 1948 Israeli-Arab war. Anti-Jewish riots erupted throughout the Arab World in December 1947, and Jewish communities were hit particularly hard in
1949–1967
As a result of Israel's victory in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, any Arabs caught on the wrong side of the ceasefire line were unable to return to their homes in what became Israel. Likewise, any Jews on the West Bank or in Gaza were exiled from their property and homes to Israel. Today's Palestinian refugees are the descendants of those who left, the responsibility for their exodus being a matter of dispute between the Israeli and the Palestinian side.[51][52]: 114 Historian Benny Morris has claimed that the "decisive cause" for the abandonment by Palestinian Arabs of their settlements was predominantly related to, or caused by, actions of the Jewish forces (citing actual physical expulsions, military assaults on settlements, fear of being caught up in fighting, the fall of nearby settlements, and propaganda inciting flight), while abandonment due to orders by the Arab leadership was decisive in only six out of the 392 depopulated Arab settlements analysed by him.[52]: xiv–xviii Over 700,000 Jews emigrated to Israel between 1948 and 1952, with approximately 285,000 of them from Arab countries.[53][54]
In 1956, Egypt closed the
Israel completed work on a
The PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organization) was first established in 1964, under a charter including a commitment to "[t]he liberation of Palestine [which] will destroy the Zionist and imperialist presence..." (PLO Charter, Article 22, 1968).
On 19 May 1967, Egypt expelled UNEF observers,[60] and deployed 100,000 soldiers in the Sinai Peninsula.[62] It again closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping,[63][61] returning the region to the way it was in 1956 when Israel was blockaded.
On 30 May 1967, Jordan signed a mutual defense pact with Egypt. Egypt mobilized Sinai units, crossing UN lines (after having expelled the UN border monitors) and mobilized and massed on Israel's southern border. On 5 June, Israel launched an attack on Egypt. The
1967–1973
At the end of August 1967, Arab leaders met in Khartoum in response to the war, to discuss the Arab position toward Israel. They reached consensus that there should be no recognition, no peace, and no negotiations with the State of Israel, the so-called "three no's",[65] which according to Abd al Azim Ramadan, left only one option – a war with Israel.[66]
In 1968, American senator Robert F. Kennedy was assassinated following a speech at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles, California. The assassin, Sirhan Sirhan, was a Palestinian-Jordanian Arab Christian[67][68] who cited Kennedy's support for Israel during the Six-Day War as his motive for the killing;[69] Sirhan was sentenced to life in prison. Some scholars described Kennedy's murder as the first spillover of the Arab–Israeli conflict (and in particular the Israeli–Palestinian conflict) on American soil.[70]
In 1969, Egypt initiated the War of Attrition, with the goal of exhausting Israel into surrendering the Sinai Peninsula.[71] The war ended following Gamal Abdel Nasser's death in 1970. Once Sadat took over, he tried to forge positive relations with the US, hoping that they would put pressure on Israel to return the land, by expelling 15,000 Russian advisors from Egypt.[72]
On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt staged a surprise attack on Israel on Yom Kippur, the holiest day of the Jewish calendar. The Israeli military were caught off guard and unprepared, and took about three days to fully mobilize.[73][74] This led other Arab states to send troops to reinforce the Egyptians and Syrians. In addition, these Arab countries agreed to enforce an oil embargo on industrial nations including the U.S., Japan and Western European Countries. These OPEC countries increased the price of oil fourfold, and used it as a political weapon to gain support against Israel.[75] The Yom Kippur War accommodated indirect confrontation between the US and the Soviet Union. When Israel had turned the tide of war, the USSR threatened military intervention. The United States, wary of nuclear war, secured a ceasefire on 25 October.[73][74]
1974–2000
Egypt
Following the
Jordan
In October 1994, Israel and Jordan signed a
Iraq
Israel and Iraq have been implacable foes since 1948. Iraq sent its troops to participate in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and later backed Egypt and Syria in the 1967 Six-Day War and in the 1973 Yom Kippur War.
In June 1981, Israel attacked and destroyed newly built Iraqi nuclear facilities in Operation Opera.
During the
Lebanon
In 1970, following an extended
The PLO resettled in Lebanon, where it began to extend a de facto autonomous rule and from which it staged raids into Israel. PLO was one of the major factors for sectarian destabilization of Lebanon and the eruption of the
In March 1983, Israel and Lebanon signed a
Palestinians
The 1970s were marked by a large number of major, international terrorist attacks, including the
In December 1987, the
In mid-1993, Israeli and Palestinian representatives engaged in peace talks in Oslo, Norway. As a result, in September 1993, Israel and the PLO signed the Oslo Accords, known as the Declaration of Principles or Oslo I. In side letters, Israel recognized the PLO as the legitimate representative of the Palestinian people, while the PLO recognized the right of the state of Israel to exist and renounced terrorism, violence and its desire for the destruction of Israel.
The Oslo II agreement was signed in 1995 and detailed the division of the West Bank into
2000–2005
The
As violence between the Israeli army and Palestinian militants intensified, Israel expanded its security apparatus around the West Bank by re-taking many parts of land in Area A. Israel established a complicated system of roadblocks and checkpoints around major Palestinian areas to deter violence and protect Israeli settlements. However, since 2008, the IDF has slowly transferred authority to Palestinian security forces.[81][82][83]
Israel's then prime minister Ariel Sharon began a policy of disengagement from the Gaza Strip in 2003. This policy was fully implemented in August 2005.[84] Sharon's announcement to disengage from Gaza came as a tremendous shock to his critics both on the left and on the right. A year previously, he had commented that the fate of the most far-flung settlements in Gaza, Netzararem and Kfar Darom, was regarded in the same light as that of Tel Aviv.[85] The formal announcements to evacuate seventeen Gaza settlements and another four in the West Bank in February 2004 represented the first reversal for the settler movement since 1968, dividing Sharon's party. It was strongly supported by Trade and Industry Minister Ehud Olmert and Tzipi Livni, the Minister for Immigration and Absorption, but Foreign Minister Silvan Shalom and Finance Minister Benjamin Netanyahu strongly condemned it. It was also uncertain at the time whether this was simply the beginning of further evacuation.[86]
Shift to Iranian–Israeli conflict (2006–present)
Israel's conflicts with Hamas and Hezbollah
In June 2006,
In July 2006,
In the Battle of Gaza in June 2007, Hamas seized control of the Gaza Strip in a violent civil war with rival Fatah. In the aftermath, Israel placed restrictions on its border with Gaza and ended economic cooperation with the Palestinian leadership based there. Israel and Egypt have imposed a blockade of the Gaza Strip since 2007. Israel maintains the blockade is necessary to limit Palestinian rocket attacks from Gaza and to prevent Hamas from smuggling advanced rockets and weapons capable of hitting its cities.[103]
On 6 September 2007, in
In April 2008, Syrian President Bashar al-Assad told a Qatari newspaper that Syria and Israel had been discussing a peace treaty for a year, with Turkey as a go-between. This was confirmed in May 2008 by a spokesman for Prime Minister Ehud Olmert. As well as a peace treaty, the future of the Golan Heights was discussed. President Assad said "there would be no direct negotiations with Israel until a new US president takes office."[105]
Speaking in Jerusalem on 26 August 2008, then United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice criticized Israel's increased settlement construction in the West Bank as detrimental to the peace process. Rice's comments came amid reports that Israeli construction in the disputed territory had increased by a factor of 1.8 over 2007 levels.[106]
A
In 2009 Israel placed a 10-month settlement freeze on the West Bank. Then United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton praised the freeze as an "unprecedented" gesture that could "help revive Middle East talks."[114][115]
A raid was carried out by Israeli naval forces on six ships of the Gaza Freedom Flotilla in May 2010[116] after the ships refused to dock at Port Ashdod. On the MV Mavi Marmara, activists clashed with the Israeli boarding party. During the fighting, nine activists were killed by Israeli special forces. Widespread international condemnation of and reaction to the raid followed, Israel–Turkey relations were strained, and Israel subsequently eased its blockade on the Gaza Strip.[117][118][119][120] Several dozen other passengers and seven Israeli soldiers were injured,[118] with some of the commandos suffering from gunshot wounds.[121][122]
Following the 2010–2011 round of peace talks between Israel and the Palestinian Authority, 13 Palestinian militant movements led by Hamas initiated a terror campaign designed to derail and disrupt the negotiations.[123] Attacks on Israelis increased after August 2010, when 4 Israeli civilians were killed by Hamas militants. Palestinian militants also increased the frequency of rocket attacks aimed at Israelis. On 2 August 2010, Hamas militants launched seven Katyusha rockets at Eilat and Aqaba, killing one Jordanian civilian and wounding 4 others.[124]
Intermittent fighting continued since then, including 680 rocket attacks on Israel in 2011.
The Palestinian Centre for Human Rights said that 158 Palestinians were killed during the operation, of which: 102 were civilians, 55 were militants and one was a policeman; 30 were children and 13 were women.[128][129] B'Tselem stated that according to its initial findings, which covered only the period between 14 and 19 November 102 Palestinians were killed in the Gaza Strip, 40 of them civilians. According to Israeli figures, 120 combatants and 57 civilians were killed.[130] International outcry ensued, with many criticizing Israel for what much of the international community perceived as a disproportionately violent response.[131] However, the governments of the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Germany, France, Australia, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic and Netherlands expressed support for Israel's right to defend itself, and/or condemned the Hamas rocket attacks on Israel.[132][133][134][135][136][137][138][139][140][141][142]
Following an escalation of rocket attacks by Hamas, Israel started an
During Syrian Civil War
Israel's military role in the
On 9 December 2017, US president
Israeli normalization with Gulf states and Sudan
The
In February 2020, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and the Chairman of the Sovereignty Council of Sudan, Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, met in Uganda, where they both agreed to normalize the ties between the two countries.[151] Later that month, Israeli planes were allowed to fly over Sudan.[152] This was followed by the Abraham Accords[153] which were agreed to by Israel and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) on 13 August 2020, and Bahrain shortly thereafter. The treaty was intended to settle relations between the two countries. Concurrently, Israel agreed to suspend plans for the annexation of the Jordan Valley.[154]
During the 2023 Hamas–Israel War, the Arab League countries refrained from officially interfering in the conflict initiated by the Iranian proxy Hamas. According to Foreign Affairs, the Hamas War has fractured the Arab World,[155] and Hamas failed to raise support across the Middle East,[156] except among Iranian-affiliated organizations and regimes. While Arab leaders at the Cairo summit on October 21, 2023 condemned Israeli bombardment of Gaza,[157] Egypt said it had hoped participants would call for peace and resume efforts to resolve the decades-long Palestinian quest for statehood and there was no joint summit statement.[158] Khalid bin Bandar Al Saud, the Saudi ambassador to the United Kingdom, said in a January 9, 2024 BBC interview that Saudi Arabia was interested in peace and normalized relations with Israel following the war, on the condition of the creation of a Palestinian State.[159]
Notable wars and violent events
Time | Name | Israeli Deaths[19] | Arab Deaths | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
1948–1949 | First Arab–Israeli War | 6,373 | 10,000[160] | Israeli victory, independence confirmed |
1951–1955 | Palestinian Fedayeen insurgency | 967 | 3,000–5,000[161] | Israeli victory |
1956 | Suez War | 231 | 2,000[162] | Israeli military victory, Egyptian political victory Israeli occupation of the Sinai Peninsula until March 1957 |
1967 | Six-Day War | 776 | 12,000[163]–13,000[164] | Israeli victory Israel captures and occupies the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria |
1967–1970 | War of Attrition | 1,424 | 2,500[165] | Both sides claim victory, continued Israeli control of Sinai |
1968–1982 | Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon | Israeli victory | ||
1973 | Yom Kippur War | 2,688 | 11,000[166]–13,000[167] | Israeli victory, Arab offensives repulsed Camp David Accords followed by Egypt–Israel peace treaty; Israel returns Sinai Peninsula in exchange for mutual recognition |
1978 | First South Lebanon conflict | 18 | 1,100 | Israeli victory, PLO expelled from southern Lebanon |
1982 | First Lebanon War | 1,216 | 19,085[168] | Israeli tactical victory but strategic failure Syrian political advantage PLO expelled from Lebanon |
1985–2000 | South Lebanon conflict | 559 | 1,897 | Hezbollah victory Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon 1,276 Hezbollah soldiers, and 621 soldiers of the pro-Israel South Lebanon Army died. |
1987–1993 | First Palestinian Intifada | 200 | 1,491[169] | Israeli victory, uprising suppressed |
1991 | Iraqi rocket attacks on Israel | 13 | 0 | Iraqi strategic failure, Iraq fails to provoke Israeli retaliation |
2000–2004 | Second Palestinian Intifada | 1,100 | 4,973[170] | Israeli victory, uprising suppressed |
2006 | Second Lebanon War | 165 | 1,191 | Inconclusive, 44 Israeli civilians, 121 Israeli soldiers, 281 Hezbollah and various other militias, 43 Lebanese soldiers, 867 Lebanese civilians died. |
2023–2024 | Israel–Hamas war | (As of March 2024) 1,437 |
26,000[171]–34,000[172] | Ongoing |
Cost of conflict
A report by the
In terms of the human cost, it is estimated that the conflict has taken 92,000 lives (74,000 military and 18,000 civilian from 1945 to 1995).[174][page needed]
See also
- One-state solution
- Two-state solution
- International law and the Arab–Israeli conflict
- Media coverage of the Arab–Israeli conflict
- Arab League and the Arab–Israeli conflict
- Soviet Union and the Arab–Israeli conflict
- Foreign relations of Israel
- Israel–European Union relations
- Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict
- Policide
- Muhammad's views on Jews
- Conflict: Middle East Political Simulator
- Civil defense in Israel
- List of wars involving Israel
- Israeli casualties of war
- Palestinian casualties of war
- Palestinian political violence
- Sykes–Picot Agreement
- Zionist political violence
- List of wars by death toll
- History of the Israel Defense Forces
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Further reading
- Associated Press, comp. (1996). Lightning Out of Israel: [The Six-Day War in the Middle East]: The Arab–Israeli Conflict. Commemorative Ed. Western Printing and Lithographing Company for the Associated Press. ASIN B000BGT89M.
- ISBN 978-0-02-863261-2.
- ISBN 978-0-7914-2944-0
- Brown, Wesley H. & Peter F. Penner (ed.): Christian Perspectives on the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict. Neufeld Verlag, Schwarzenfeld 2008. ISBN 978-3-937896-57-1.
- ISBN 978-0-7432-8502-5.
- Casper, Lionel L. (2003). Rape of Palestine and the Struggle for Jerusalem. New York & Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 978-965-229-297-1.
- ISBN 978-965-229-373-2.
- Cramer, Richard Ben (2004). How Israel Lost: The Four Questions. New York: ISBN 978-0-7432-5028-3.
- ISBN 978-0-471-67952-3.
- ISBN 978-0-299-20250-7
- ISBN 978-0-521-61804-5.
- ISBN 978-1-4000-5475-6.
- ISBN 978-1-85984-442-7.
- Goldenberg, Doron (2003). State of Siege. Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 978-965-229-310-7.
- ISBN 978-0-19-514650-9.
- .
- Howell, Mark (2007). What Did We Do to Deserve This? Palestinian Life under Occupation in the West Bank, Garnet Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85964-195-8
- ISBN 978-965-229-303-9.
- ISBN 978-0-933503-03-8.
- Khouri, Fred J. (1985). The Arab–Israeli Dilemma (3rd ed.). Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-2339-7.
- ISBN 978-0-691-05419-3.
- Lesch, David (2007). The Arab–Israeli Conflict A History. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-517230-0.
- –––. (September 1990). "The Roots of Muslim Rage." The Atlantic Monthly.
- ISBN 978-0-472-11540-2
- ISBN 978-0-521-00967-6.
- ISBN 978-0-679-42120-7.
- Morris, Benny (2009). 1948: A History of the First Arab–Israeli War, Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15112-1
- ISBN 978-0-8156-3230-6
- Pressman, Jeremy (2020). The Sword is Not Enough: Arabs, Israelis, and the Limits of Military Force, Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-1-5261-4617-5
- Quandt, William B. "Lyndon Johnson and the June 1967 war: what color was the light?." Middle East Journal 46.2 (1992): 198–228. online on US strategy
- Rogan, Eugene L., ed., and ISBN 978-0-521-79476-3.
- ISBN 978-0-8050-6587-9.
- Ziv, Guy. Why hawks become doves: Shimon Peres and foreign policy change in Israel (SUNY Press, 2014).