Melchizedek
Melchizedek | |
---|---|
Priest and King of Salem | |
Venerated in | |
Canonized | Pre-Congregation |
Feast |
|
In the
In Christianity, according to the Epistle to the Hebrews, Jesus is identified as "High priest forever in the order of Melchizedek", and so Jesus assumes the role of High Priest once and for all. Chazalic literature – specifically Targum Jonathan, Targum Yerushalmi, and the Babylonian Talmud – presents his name (מלכי־צדק) as a nickname for Shem.[4]
Joseph Blenkinsopp has suggested that the story of Melchizedek is an informal insertion into the Genesis narration, possibly inserted in order to give validity to the priesthood and tithes connected with the Second Temple. It has also been conjectured that the suffix “-zedek” may have been or become a reference to a Canaanite deity worshipped in pre-Israelite Jerusalem.[5]: 56–60 An Ugaritic reference older than 12th century BCE to a god named Ṣaduq ('righteousness') has also been found,[6] a possible forerunner of the inclusion of Zedek in personal names. Zedek probably personified the justice function of the sun god Shamash,[7] a deity considered the possible tutelary deity of Jerusalem.[8]
Name
In the majority of
The name is composed from the two elements:
The name is formed in parallel with
“Zedek is probably to be identified with the deity known as Išar among the Amorites and Kittu in Babylonia, and thus a hypostasis or personification of the sun god Shamash’s function (Shemesh) as divine overseer of justice.”[17]
Hebrew Bible
Genesis 14
The narrative of Genesis 14 is part of the larger story telling how
at which point:And Melchizedek king of Salem brought out bread and wine: and he was [is] the priest of the most high God. And he blessed him, and said, 'Blessed be Abram to the most high God, possessor of heaven and earth, And blessed be the most high God, which hath delivered thine enemies into thy hand'. And he gave him tithe from all.
Some textual critics classify the narration as not being derived from any of the usual
Lebanese Protestant scholar Kamal Salibi (1929–2011) observes that Hebrew: ֹמַעֲשֵׂר, m'sr, which literally does mean 'tenth', might more loosely be used to mean 'portion', and Hebrew: מִכֹּל, m-kl, or 'from all', might refer just to food in the giver's possession, so that the whole verse might mean "He gave him a portion of food".[23]
Genesis 14:18
Tithe recipient
Due to an ambiguity in the Hebrew text, it is unclear who gave tithe to whom: Abram to Melchizedek, or Melchizedek to Abram: the verse in question states simply, "And [he] gave him tithe from all" (v-yiten-lo ma'aser mekol, ויתן לו מעשר מכל). Most translations of this verse preserve the ambiguity, "he gave to him", but some modern translations make explicit the mainstream interpretation of Abram being the giver and Melchizedek the recipient.[30][31]
TheExpressing a kabbalistic point of view, the Zohar commentary to Genesis 14 cites Rabbi Yitzchak as saying that it was God who gave a tithe to Abram in the form of removing the Hebrew letter He from his own throne of glory and presenting it to the soul of Abram for his benefit.[36]
Rabbi
Psalm 110
The second and final Hebrew Bible mention of Melchizedek is in
translate it as:The LORD hath sworn, and will not repent: 'Thou art a priest for ever after the manner of Melchizedek.'
— (JPS 1917)
Although the above is the traditional translation of the text, the Hebrew text can be interpreted in various ways, and the New Jewish Publication Society of America Tanakh, (1985 edition), for example, has:
You are a priest forever, a rightful king by My decree.
— JPS 1985)
Another alternative keeps Melchizedek as a personal name but changes the identity of the person addressed: "You are a priest forever by my order (or 'on my account'), O Melchizedek" – here it is Melchizedek who is being addressed throughout the psalm.[39]
The majority of
Samaritan Pentateuch
The
William F. Albright views the Samaritan wording as authentic[d] as does the New American Bible[44]
Regarding the residence of Melchizedek, Samaritan tradition identified a "Salem" as a place on the slopes of Mount Gerizim which served as a blessing place of the children of Israel upon their initial crossing of the Jordan river.[citation needed] The Samaritans allocate Gerizim (and not Jerusalem) as the site intended for the Temple, and thus the "שלמו" text serves an obvious sectarian purpose. However, this practice is not solely associated with the Samaritans: the possessive suffix is also found in the 3rd- or 2nd-century BC Book of Jubilees, and Greek possessive suffixes are even used in the Septuagint version of Genesis.[45]
New Testament
With respect to Genesis 14:20,
Psalm 110:4 is cited in the New Testament letter to the Hebrews as an indicator that Jesus, regarded in the letter as the Messiah, had a right to a priesthood pre-dating the Jewish Aaronic priesthood (Hebrews 5:5–6).[46]
In Judaism
Hellenistic Judaism
Philo identifies Melchizedek with the Logos as priest of God,[47] and honoured as an untutored priesthood.[48]
The
The Story of Melchizedek is a short pseudepigraphon composed in Greek in the first three centuries AD, probably in a Jewish milieu. It survives today only in Christian recensions, but in at least ten languages.[52]
Dead Sea Scrolls
11Q13 (11QMelch) is a fragment of a text, dated to the end of the second or start of the first century BC, about Melchizedek, found in Cave 11 at Qumran in the West Bank and part of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Melchizedek is seen as a divine being in the text and is referred to as "El" or "Elohim", titles usually reserved for God.[53] According to the text, Melchizedek will proclaim the "Day of Atonement" and he will atone for the people who are predestined to him. He also will judge the peoples.[54]
The Genesis Apocryphon (1QapGen) repeats information from Genesis.[55]
The
Torah commentaries
Hebrew-language
In rabbinic literature
The narrative preceding Melchizedek's introduction presents a picture of Melchizedek's involvement in the events of his era. The narration details Abram's rescue of his nephew Lot and his spectacular defeat of multiple kings and goes on to define the meeting place of Melchizedek and Abram as "Emek HaShaveh which is Emek HaMelech". The meeting site has been associated with Emek Yehoshaphat (the Valley of Josaphat).[64] Targum Onkelos describes the meeting location's size as "a plot the size of a king's Riis". Midrashic exegesis describes how a large group of governors and kings convened in unison to pay homage to the victor Abram and desired to make him a deity, at which point he declined, attributing his victory to God's might and will alone.[65]
The chronological work
There is, however, disagreement amongst
Transition of the Priesthood
Although Melchizedek is the first person in the
The
Rabbinic authorities differ as to whether kehuna was given to Abram there and then[78] or after the demise of Melchizedek.[79]
The Midrash records that Shem functioned as
Midrash text
The Midrash quotes multiple aspects of both Melchizedek and Abram; the Rabbis taught that Melchizedek acted as a priest and handed down Adam's robes to Abram (Numbers Rabbah 4:8).
Rabbi Isaac the Babylonian said that Melchizedek was born
Rabbi Judah said in Rabbi Nehorai's name that Melchizedek's blessing yielded prosperity for Abram, Isaac, and Jacob (Genesis Rabbah 43:8). Ephraim Miksha'ah the disciple of Rabbi Meir said in the latter's name that Tamar descended from Melchizedek (Genesis Rabbah 85:10).
Rabbi Hana bar Bizna citing Rabbi Simeon Hasida identified Melchizedek as one of the four craftsmen of whom
Thus according to Jewish legend, confusion over Melchizedek being both King and Priest is solved by knowing that Shem was also a progenitor of the Davidic Monarchy, which descended from both Judah and Tamar, who was sentenced to 'death by fire' when accused of committing prostitution as the daughter of high priest Shem.[82]
In the Zohar
The Zohar (redacted by Moses de León c. 1290s) finds in "Melchizedek king of Salem" a reference to "the King Who rules with complete sovereignty". or according to another explanation, that "Melchizedek" alludes to the lower world and "king of Salem" to the upper world (Zohar 1:86b–87a). The Zohar's commentary on Genesis 14 cites a Rabbi Yitzchak as saying that it was God who gave tithe to Abram in the form of removing the Hebrew letter He from his throne of glory and presenting it to the soul of Abram for his benefit.[citation needed] The letter he is the letter God added to Abram's name to become "Abra-ha-m" in Genesis.
In Christianity
In the
Association with the Messiah
The association or identification of Melchizedek with the
A collection of early Gnostic scripts dating on or before the 4th century, discovered in 1945 and known as the Nag Hammadi library, contains a tractate pertaining to Melchizedek. Here it is proposed that Melchizedek is Jesus Christ.[86] Melchizedek, as Jesus Christ, lives, preaches, dies and is resurrected, in a gnostic perspective. The Coming of the Son of God Melchizedek speaks of his return to bring peace, supported by God, and he is a priest-king who dispenses justice.[87]
The association with
This association between Melchizedek and Jesus is indirectly supported by a quotation attributed directly to Jesus himself in the Gospel of John, in which Jesus obliquely claims to have personally met Abraham: “Abraham your father rejoiced to see my day; he saw it and was glad.” (John 8:56.)[91]
The
The
Liturgical commemoration
Melchizedek is mentioned in the
He is commemorated in the
: Melkisetek) is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefathers on July 26.Protestantism
Traditional Protestant Christian denominations, following Luther, teach that Melchizedek was a historical figure and an archetype of Christ.[97]
Tremper Longman III notes that a popular understanding of the relationship between Melchizedek and Jesus is that Melchizedek is an Old Testament Christophany – in other words, that Melchizedek is Jesus, or at the very least, is a close resemblance of Jesus.[98]
Latter Day Saint movement
In the Latter Day Saint movement, the Book of Mormon makes reference to Melchizedek in (Alma 13:17–19).[99] According to Encyclopædia Britannica, Joseph Smith, the movement's founder, "appointed his male followers to priesthoods, named for the biblical figures Melchizedek and Aaron, that were overseen by the office of High Priest", incorporating selected practices from the Hebrew Bible.[100] These priesthoods are laid out by Smith in Doctrine and Covenants 107:1-2, 4, 6-10, 14, 17-18, 22, 29, 71, 73, 76,[101] as well as more than twenty additional references in that work.
The largest denomination in the movement, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, states it derives authority to act in God's name through the Melchizedek Priesthood, both from an administrative perspective - performing sacred ordinances - and a ministering capacity. According to the church's summary of the Melchizedek Priesthood, there are but two priesthoods, "the Melchizedek and the Aaronic." And that the Melchizedek is the higher or greater priesthood, "after the order of the Son of God (or Jesus Christ)." According to their doctrine, this priesthood is the priesthood of Jesus Christ himself, i.e. it is his power which he delegates to certain persons as he sees fit by "calling". This power is not directly cited as His power to avoid the frequent repetition of His sacred name.[102] Its offices include elder, high priest, patriarch, seventy, and apostle.[103]
In Islam
Although Melchizedek is not referred to in the
In modern culture
Melchizedek appears as a character in Paulo Coelho's novel The Alchemist, where he guides the protagonist, Santiago.[106]
See also
- Amraphel
- Arioch
- Dominion of Melchizedek
- Lech-Lecha
- Melchisedechians
- Righteous Priest
- Zadok
Notes
- Ramban, Bereishith chapter 14, opines that the name implies "my king is tzedek", based on the notion that the city of Salem is associated with the attribute of righteousness.
- ^ I.e., beginning in a form of talking to the person directly and ending the speech as speaking for the recipient – Meshech Chochma to Bereishit chapter 14.
- King Saul of the tribe of Benjamin (Binyamin) whom David was careful not to overthrow or to the Torah (as per it being referred to as "from his right hand – a fire of religion to them" Deuteronomy)[40]
- ^ Albright reads melek shelomo (מלך-שלמו), "of his peace", instead of melek Salem, "king of Jerusalem", brought out bread and wine..."[43]
References
- IPA-ified from «mĕl-kĭz'a-dĭk»
- .
- ^ Genesis 14:18–20
- Talmud Bavlito tractate Nedarim 32b et al.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8028-7287-6.
- ISBN 978-0-19-530173-1, retrieved 2022-01-31
- ^ B. F. Batto, “Zedeq צדק”, in: Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible Online, Edited by: Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter W. van der Horst. Retrieved 26 January 2024 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2589-7802_DDDO_DDDO_Zedeq>
- ^ Römer, T. (2015). The Invention of God. Harvard University Press.
- ^ Strong's Concordance no. 4428 and 6666.
- ^ a b van der Toorn, K.; et al. (1996). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 560.
- ^ Masson, Olivier; Sznycer, Maurice (1972). Recherches sur les Phéniciens à Chypre. Librairie Droz. p. 99.
- ^ A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament with an appendix containing the Biblical Aramaic, written by Francis Brown, Samuel Rolles Driver and Charles Augustus Briggs, based on the Hebrew lexicon of Wilhelm Gesenius as translated by Edward Robinson, Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1906, p. 575.
- .
- ^ Geoffrey W. Bromiley ed., The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1994, entries Melchizedek, Adoni-zedek
- ^ Joshua 10:1–3
- ^ The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges at Google Books
- ^ B. F. Batto, “Zedeq צדק”, in: Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible Online, Edited by: Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter W. van der Horst. Retrieved 26 January 2024 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2589-7802_DDDO_DDDO_Zedeq>
- ^ Genesis 14:17–24 see below
- ^ Genesis 14:18–20
- ^ Speiser, E. A. "Genesis. Introduction, translation, and notes" (AB 1; Garden City 1964) p. 105; Von Rad, "Genesis", pp. 170, 174; Noth, Martin. "A History of Pentateuchal Traditions" (Englewood Cliffs 1972) p. 28, n. 84.
- ^ Gunkel, Hermann. Genesis (Göttingen 1922) pp. 284–5
- ISBN 9780877790440.
- ^ Kamal Salibi, The Bible Came from Arabia Jonathan Cape, 1985, chapter 12
- ^ Genesis 14:18
- ^ Genesis 14:19–20
- ^ Genesis 14:22
- ^ Della Vida, G. Levi. "El Elyon in Genesis 14:18–20", JBL 63 (1944) pp. 1–9
- ^ Fitzmyer, J. A. The Aramaic Inscriptions of Sefire, Revised Edition (Bibor 19A; Rome 1995) pp. 41, 75
- ^ Lack, R. "Les origines de Elyon, le Très-Haut, dans la tradition cultuelle d’Israel", CBQ 24 (1962) pp. 44–64
- ISBN 0-393-01955-1.
Employment of the verb without a subject, not uncommon in biblical usage, occurs at the end of verse 20, where the Hebrew does not state what the context implies, that it is Abram who gives the tithe.
- ^ The Revised English Bible. Oxford University Press, Cambridge University Press. 1989. p. 11.
- ^ Hayward, C. T. Robert (2010). Targums and the transmission of scripture into Judaism and Christianity. Koninklijke Brill NV. p. 15.
Targum Pseudo-Jonathan makes it clear that Abraham paid tithes to Melchizedek, as does the interpretation adopted by Jub. 13.25–27; Josephus Ant. 1.181; Philo Cong. 93, 99; and, of course, the epistle to the Hebrews [7:4].
- ^ Herczeg, Yisrael Isser Zvi (1995). The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Mesorah Publications. p. 140.
- ^ Numbers 31:41
- ^ Rogatchover Gaon. Tzafnat Paaneach al HaTorah. commentary on Gen. 14
- ^ Zohar Chodosh to Bereishit chap. 14 (the Zohar text, however, does not state that a name change to "Abra-ha-m" occurred at this point).
- ^ Psalm 110:4
- ^ such as the Vulgate, KJV 1611, JPS 1917
- ^ Kugel, James L. Traditions of the Bible, pp. 278–9
- ^ Targum Yonathan to Psalm 110
- ^ Babylonian Talmud to Nedarim, p. 32
- ^ zohar vol. 3 p. 53b
- ^ Albright, W. F. "Abram the Hebrew: A New Archaeological Interpretation", BASOR 163 (1961) 36–54, esp. 52.
- ^ New American Bible (1980), Genesis 14, fn.5
- ^ James L. Kugel, Traditions of the Bible, pp. 283–4
- ^ Hebrews 5:5–6
- ^ Jutta Leonhardt Jewish worship in Philo of Alexandria 2001 p216 "IIl 82 Philo also identifies Melchizedek with the Logos as priest of God. Thus Melchizedek, Although Philo interprets the Jewish first-fruit offering and quotes the Jewish laws, the general context is still Cain's sacrifice."
- ^ Fred L. Horton The Melchizedek Tradition: A Critical Examination of the Sources 2005 p170 "In the Genesis Apocryphon Melchizedek is brought into connection with Jerusalem (as he is later in Josephus), and in Philo Melchizedek is honored as the possessor of an unlearned and untutored priesthood, indeed as a representation"
- ISBN 0-567-03055-5.
- ^ 2 Enoch, Chapters 69–72
- ^ Morfill, W R (translator). The Book of the Secrets of Enoch.
{{cite book}}
:|author=
has generic name (help) - .
- ^ Sumner, Paul (February 25, 2010). "Melchizedek: Angel, Man or Messiah?". Hebrew Streams. Retrieved September 9, 2020.
- ^ Wise, Abegg, Cook (1996). The Dead Sea Scrolls: a New Translation.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ The Melchizedek Tradition: A Critical Examination of the Sources p. 85 Fred L. Horton – 2005 "Interestingly enough, we see that the Genesis Apocryphon offers no unique information about Melchizedek. Josephus gives three items of information not found in the other sources, and Philo four."
- ISBN 978-1-56338-411-0.
- ^ Gareth Lee Cockerill, The Epistle to the Hebrews, vol. 29 of The New International Commentary on the New Testament Author, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2012, 298f. (fn. 14).
- ^ Willard M. Swartley, Covenant of Peace, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2006, p. 255. Gary Staats, A Christological Commentary on Hebrews (2012), p. 71: "[The writer of Hebrews] is identifying Melchizedek as a king of righteousness and a king of peace. He thus becomes a beautiful type of Jesus Christ who is also the final King of righteousness and the final King of peace."
- ^ "if from a string and until a shoe string" – Bereishith 14:23
- ^ Chizkuni to Bereishith 14:18
- ^ Genesis 14:21–24
- ^ Rashbam to Bereishith 1418
- ^ see ohr hachayim to Bereishit 14:18
- Pirkei Avoth4:22
- Rabbi Moshe HaDarshan. Medrash Rabbah
- ^ a b seder hadoroth p. 9b.
- ^ malbim to genesis chap. 14
- Rambanto Bereishith 14:18
- ^ Rashi (based on Sifra) to Bereishith 12:6
- ^ introduction to Torath HaKohanim (M. Rizikoff)
- ^ Genesis 9:27
- ^ Maharzav (Rabbi Zev Wolf Einhorn; ?–1862; Lithuania), to Leviticus Rabbah 25:6
- Chizkunito Leviticus reasons that since the kohen father of the household naturally instills in his children the duties of Kehuna from birth and onward making them successful at their Kohanic duties
- ^ In Genesis 14:19–20, a precedence not befitting a kohen who is to be of total service to God – Eitz Yosef to Leviticu Rabbah 25:6.
- ^ Rabbi Zechariah, quoting Rabbi Ishmael; Leviticus Rabbah 25:6, Babylonian Talmud to Nedarim 32b. Zohar vol. 1 p. 86b.
- Ohr HaChayim (Rabbi Chaim ben Attar 1696–1742, Morocco) to Genesis 14:18 (first explanation). Eitz Yosef commentary to Leviticus Rabbah 25:6. Zoharvol. 1 p. 86b
- ^ Ohr HaChaim to Bereishith 14:18
- ^ Maharzav (Z. V. Einhorn) to Leviticus Rabbah 25:6 (since Abraham's demise preceded Shem's by 35 years)
- Vayikra Rabbah25:6
- ^ Zechariah 2:3
- ^ (in Psalm 110). (Babylonian Talmud Baba Batra 14b–15a.)
- ^ Ginzberg, Louis (1909). The Legends of the Jews Volume III: Judah and His Sons (translated by Henrietta Szold) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society.
- ^ Hebrews 5:6–10; Hebrews 6:20; Hebrews 7:1–21
- ^ Psalm 110:4
- ^ Hebrews 5:6
- ^ Robinson, James M (translator) (1978). The Nag Hammadi Library in English.
{{cite book}}
:|author=
has generic name (help) - ^ Text of the tractate: http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/melchiz.html
- ^ Gareth Lee Cockerill, "The Epistle to the Hebrews", vol. 29 of The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2012, 298f. (fn. 14).
- ^ Willard M. Swartley, Covenant of Peace, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2006, p. 255.
- ^ Gary Staats, A Christological Commentary on Hebrews (2012), p. 71: "[The writer of Hebrews] is identifying Melchizedek as a king of righteousness and a king of peace. He thus becomes a beautiful type of Jesus Christ who is also the final King of righteousness and the final King of peace."
- ^ https://mail.biblehub.com/nabre/john/8.htm
- ^ "Jesus Christ is not only typologically linked with the priestly order of Melchizedek, but fulfills and supersedes Melchizedek's person and role" Willard M. Swartley, Covenant of Peace, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2006, p. 255f.
- ^ "Christ, Melchizedek, and the Eucharistic Sacrifice". 3 September 2018.
- ^ Philip Edgcumbe Hughes, A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews p. 244
- ^ Martyrologium Romanum ex Decreto Sacrosancti Concilii Oecumenici Vaticani II instauratum, auctoritate Ioannis Pauli Pp. II promulgatum, editio [typica] altera, Typis vaticanis, [2004], p. 476.
- ^ May 22/June 4 Archived 2014-08-22 at the Wayback Machine. Orthodox Calendar (Provaslavie.ru).
- ^ Luther's works: First lectures on the Psalms II, Psalms 76-126 Martin Luther, Hilton C. Oswald – 1976 "After the order of Melchizedek, which is understood, first, in accordance with the name. [...] Therefore He is the true Melchizedek. Second, this is understood in accordance with the office, because Melchizedek offered the bread and wine"
- ISBN 9780830875603.
- ^ Alma 13:17–19
- ^ Bushman, Richard L. (25 April 2017). "Joseph Smith — American religious leader (1805–1844)". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
He appointed his male followers to priesthoods, named for the biblical figures Melchizedek and Aaron, that were overseen by the office of High Priest.
- ^ Doctrine and Covenants 107:1-2, 4, 6-10, 14, 17-18, 22, 29, 71, 73, 76
- ^ Doctrine & Covenants 107:3-4
- ^ Melchizedek Priesthood Summary
- ^ "WORLD OF FAITH: THE IMAM'S DA'IS AND THE ISMAILI DA'WAH". March 28, 2018. Retrieved November 12, 2018.
- ISBN 0595231993.
- ^ Muraleedharan, Manju. "Multi-disciplinary dimensions in Paulo Coelho’s Novel The Alchemist." Journal of Literature, Culture and Media Studies 3.5&6 (2012).
Further reading
- Dallmann, Robert W. (2013). Melchisedec: A Character Study. Niagara Falls, NY: ChristLife. ISBN 9780991489114.
- Horton, Fred L. (1976). The Melchizedek Tradition: A Critical Examination of the Sources to the Fifth Century A.D. and in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ISBN 0-674-79151-7.
- "Priesthood of Melchizedek". Let Us Reason Ministries. 2009.
- ISBN 978-88-7653-136-1.
- Mathews, Joshua G. (2013). Melchizedek's Alternative Priestly Order: A Compositional Analysis of Genesis 14:18–20 and Its Echoes Throughout the Tanak. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-820-6.
- Williams, Logan (2023). "Melchizedek, the Son of Man, and Eschatological Jubilee: The Sin-Forgiving Messiahs in 11QMelchizedek and Mark". Journal for the Study of the New Testament 46: 111–149.
External links
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.