Olympe de Gouges
Olympe de Gouges | |
---|---|
Place de la Révolution, Paris, French First Republic | |
Cause of death | Execution by guillotine |
Occupations |
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Spouse |
Louis Aubry
(m. 1765; died 1766) |
Children | 1 |
Signature | |
Olympe de Gouges (French:
Born in southwestern France, de Gouges began her prolific career as a playwright in Paris in the 1780s. A passionate advocate of human rights, she was one of France's earliest public opponents of slavery. Her plays and pamphlets spanned a wide variety of issues including divorce and marriage,
De Gouges was associated with the moderate Girondins and opposed the execution of Louis XVI. Her increasingly vehement writings, which attacked Maximilien Robespierre's radical Montagnards and the Revolutionary government during the Reign of Terror, led to her eventual arrest and execution by guillotine in 1793.
Biography
Birth and parentage
Marie Gouze was born on 7 May 1748 in Montauban, Quercy (in the present-day department of Tarn-et-Garonne) in southwestern France.[2] Her mother, Anne Olympe Mouisset Gouze, was the daughter of a bourgeois family.[3] The identity of her father is ambiguous. Her father may have been her mother's husband, Pierre Gouze, or she may have been the illegitimate daughter of Jean-Jacques Lefranc, Marquis de Pompignan.[2] Marie Gouze encouraged rumours that Pompignan was her father, and their relationship is considered plausible but "historically unverifiable."[4] Other rumours in the eighteenth century also suggested that her father might be Louis XV, but this identification is not considered credible.[2]
The Pompignan family had long-standing close ties to the Mouisset family of Marie Gouze's mother, Anne. When Anne was born in 1727, the eldest Pompignan son, Jean-Jacques Lefranc de Pompignan (age five), was her godfather. Anne's father tutored him as he grew. During their childhoods, Pompignan became close to Anne, but was separated from her in 1734 when he was sent to Paris. Anne married Pierre Gouze, a butcher, in 1737 and had three children before Marie, a son and two girls.[5] Pompignan returned to Montauban in 1747, the year before Marie's birth.[5] Pierre was legally recognized as Marie's father.[2] Pierre did not attend Marie's baptism on 8 May. Her godfather was a workman named Jean Portié, and her godmother a woman named Marie Grimal.[6] Pierre died in 1750.[6]
The primary support for the identification of Pompignan as Marie Gouze's father is found in her semi-autobiographical novel, Mémoires de Madame de Valmont, published after Pompignan's death.[2] According to the contemporary politician Jean-Babtiste Poncet-Delpech and others, "all of Montauban" knew that Pompignan was Gouze's father.[7] However, some historians consider it likely that Gouze fabricated the story for her memoirs in order to raise her prestige and social standing when she moved to Paris.[4]
Early life
Marie-Olympe de Gouges (formally Marie Gouze) was born into a wealthy family, and although her mother was privately tutored, she had no actual formal education herself.[8] Reportedly illiterate, she was said to dictate to a secretary.[9]
Gouze was married on 24 October 1765 to Louis Yves Aubry, a caterer, against her will.[10] The heroine of her semi-autobiographical novel Mémoires is fourteen at her wedding; the new Marie Aubry herself was seventeen.[10] Her novel strongly decried the marriage: "I was married to a man I did not love and who was neither rich nor well-born. I was sacrificed for no reason that could make up for the repugnance I felt for this man."[11] Marie's substantially larger fortune allowed her new husband Louis to leave his employer and start his own business. On 29 August 1766, she gave birth to their son, Pierre Aubry. That November, a destructive flood of the river Tarn caused Louis' death.[12] She never married again, calling the institution of marriage "the tomb of trust and love".[13]
Known under the name Marie Aubry, after her husband's death she changed her name to Olympe de Gouges, from her surname (Gouze) and adding her mother's middle name, Olympe.[14] Soon after, she began a relationship with the wealthy Jacques Biétrix de Rozières, a businessman from Lyon.[15]
Move to Paris
In 1768, Biétrix funded de Gouges's move to Paris, where he provided her with an income.[15] She lived with her son and her sister.[13] She socialized in fashionable society, at one point being called "one of Paris' prettiest women," and formed friendships with Madame de Montesson and Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans.[16] De Gouges attended the artistic and philosophical salons of Paris, where she met many writers, including La Harpe, Mercier, and Chamfort, as well as future politicians such as Brissot and Condorcet. She usually was invited to the salons of Madame de Montesson and the Comtesse de Beauharnais, who also were playwrights.
De Gouges began her career as a writer in Paris, publishing a novel in 1784 and then beginning a prolific career as a playwright. As a woman from the province and of lowly birth she fashioned herself to fit in with the Paris establishment.
In 1788 she published Réflexions sur les hommes nègres, which demanded compassion for the plight of slaves in the French colonies.[19] For de Gouges there was a direct link between the autocratic monarchy in France and the institution of slavery. She argued that "Men everywhere are equal... Kings who are just do not want slaves; they know that they have submissive subjects."[20] She came to the public's attention with the play L'Esclavage des Noirs, which was staged at the famous Comédie-Française in 1785. Her stance against slavery in the French colonies made her the target of threats.[13] De Gouges was also attacked by those who thought that a woman's proper place was not in the theatre. The influential Abraham-Joseph Bénard remarked "Mme de Gouges is one of those women to whom one feels like giving razor blades as a present, who through their pretensions lose the charming qualities of their sex... Every woman author is in a false position, regardless of her talent." De Gouges was defiant: she wrote "I'm determined to be a success, and I'll do it in spite of my enemies." The slave trade lobby mounted a press campaign against her play and she eventually took legal action, forcing Comédie-Française to stage L'Esclavage des Noirs. But the play closed after three performances; the lobby had paid hecklers to sabotage the performances.[21]
Revolutionary politics
A passionate advocate of human rights, de Gouges greeted the outbreak of the Revolution with hope and joy, but soon became disenchanted when égalité (equal rights) was not extended to women. In 1791, influenced and inspired by John Locke's treatises on natural rights, de Gouges became part of the Society of the Friends of Truth, also known as the "Social Club," which was an association with the goal of establishing equal political and legal rights for women. Members sometimes gathered at the home of the well-known women's rights advocate, Sophie de Condorcet. In 1791, in response to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, she wrote the Déclaration des droits de la Femme et de la Citoyenne ("Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen"). In that pamphlet she expressed, for the first time, her famous statement:
A woman has the right to mount the scaffold. She must possess equally the right to mount the speaker's platform.[22]
This was followed by her Contrat Social ("Social Contract", named after a famous work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau), proposing marriage based upon gender equality.[22]
In 1790 and 1791, in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti), free people of colour and African slaves revolted in response to the ideals expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.[23] De Gouges did not approve of violent revolution, and published L'Esclavage des Noirs with a preface in 1792, arguing that the slaves and the free people who responded to the horrors of slavery with "barbaric and atrocious torture" in turn justified the behavior of the tyrants. In Paris, de Gouges was accused by the mayor of Paris of having incited the insurrection in Saint-Domingue with the play.[24] When it was staged again in December 1792 a riot erupted in Paris.[25]
De Gouges opposed the execution of
Olympe de Gouges was associated with the Gironde faction, which ultimately led to her being executed. She did not go to the guillotine for her feminism, as many might think. Instead her crime was spreading Federalism as a replacement for Montagnard revolutionary central rule. Revolutionary rule during the Terror was accompanied by emphasis on masculine public political authority that resulted, for example, in the expulsion of women from Jacobin clubs.[29]
Due to her being part of the Gironde faction which were targeted by the more radical Montagnard faction. After the execution of Louis XVI she became wary of Robespierre's Montagnard faction and in open letters criticized their violence and summary killings.[13]
Arrest and execution
As the Revolution progressed, she became more and more vehement in her writings. On 2 June 1793, the
Marie-Olympe de Gouges was arrested on July 20, 1793. Although she was arrested in July she would not meet the end of her life until November of that year.[33] After her arrest, the commissioners searched her house for evidence. When they could not find any in her home, she voluntarily led them to the storehouse where she kept her papers. It was there that the commissioners found an unfinished play titled La France Sauvée ou le Tyran Détroné ("France Preserved, or The Tyrant Dethroned"). In the first act (only the first act and a half remain),
She spent three months in jail without an attorney as the presiding judge had denied de Gouges her legal right to a lawyer on the grounds that she was more than capable of representing herself. It is likely that the judge based this argument on de Gouges's tendency to represent herself in her writings.[34] Through her friends, she managed to publish two texts: Olympe de Gouges au tribunal révolutionnaire ("Olympe de Gouges at the Revolutionary tribunal"), in which she related her interrogations; and her last work, Une patriote persécutée ("A [female] patriot persecuted"), in which she condemned the Terror.[34]
De Gouges had acquired for her son, Pierre Aubry, a position as a vice-general and head of battalion in exchange for a payment of 1,500 livres, and he was suspended from this office after her arrest.[35] On 2 November 1793 she wrote to him: "I die, my dear son, a victim of my idolatry for the fatherland and for the people. Under the specious mask of republicanism, her enemies have brought me remorselessly to the scaffold."[36]
On 3 November 1793 the
Yesterday, at seven o'clock in the evening, a most extraordinary person called Olympe de Gouges who held the imposing title of woman of letters, was taken to the scaffold, while all of Paris, while admiring her beauty, knew that she didn't even know her alphabet... She approached the scaffold with a calm and serene expression on her face, and forced the guillotine's furies, which had driven her to this place of torture, to admit that such courage and beauty had never been seen before... That woman... had thrown herself in the Revolution, body and soul. But having quickly perceived how atrocious the system adopted by the Jacobins was, she chose to retrace her steps. She attempted to unmask the villains through the literary productions which she had printed and put up. They never forgave her, and she paid for her carelessness with her head.[39]
Posthumous political impact
Her execution was used as a warning to other politically active women. At the 15 November 1793 meeting of the Commune, Pierre Gaspard Chaumette cautioned a group of women wearing Phrygian bonnets, reminding them of "the impudent Olympe de Gouges, who was the first woman to start up women's political clubs, who abandoned the cares of her home, to meddle in the affairs of the Republic, and whose head fell under avenging blade of the law". This posthumous characterisation of de Gouges by the political establishment was misleading, as de Gouges had no role in founding the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women. In her political writings de Gouges had not called for women to abandon their homes, but she was cast by the politicians as an enemy of the natural order, and thus enemy of the ruling Jacobin party. Paradoxically, the two women who had started the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women, Claire Lacombe and Pauline Léon, were not executed.[40] Lacombe, Léon and Theroigne de Mericourt had spoken at women's and mixed clubs, and the Assemblée, while de Gouges had shown a reluctance to engage in public speaking, but prolifically published pamphlets.[41] However, Chaumette was a staunch opponent of the Girondins, and had characterised de Gouges as unnatural and unrepublican prior to her execution.[42]
The year 1793 has been described as a watershed for the construction of women's place in revolutionary France, and the deconstruction of the Girondins'
De Gouges's
American women began to refer to themselves as citess or citizeness and took to the streets to achieve equality and freedom.[47] The same year de Gouges was executed the pamphlet On the Marriage of Two Celebrated Widows was published anonymously, proclaiming that "two celebrated widows, ladies of America and France, after having repudiated their husbands on account of their ill treatment, conceived of the design of living together in the strictest union and friendship."[48] Revolutionary novels were published that put women at the centre of violent struggle, such as the narratives written by Helen Maria Williams and Leonora Sansay.[47] At the 1848 Women's Rights Convention at Seneca Falls, the rhetorical style of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen was employed to paraphrase the United States Declaration of Independence into the Declaration of Sentiments,[49] which demanded women's right to vote.[50]
After her execution her son Pierre Aubry signed a letter in which he denied his endorsement for her political legacy.[35] He tried to change her name in the records, to Marie Aubry, but the name she had given herself has endured.[51]
Writing
All of Olympe de Gouges' plays and novels convey the overarching theme of her life's work: indignation at social injustices. In addition to women's rights, de Gouges engaged contested topics including the slave trade, divorce, marriage, debtors' prisons, children's rights, and government work schemes for the unemployed. Much of her work foregrounded the troubling intersections of two or more issues. While many plays by women playwrights staged at the Comédie Française were published anonymously or under male pseudonyms, de Gouges broke with tradition; not only did she publish using her own name, but she also pushed the boundaries of what was deemed appropriate subject matter for women playwrights—and withstood the consequences.[52] A record of her papers which were seized at the time of execution in 1793 lists about 40 plays.[53]
In 1784 she published an epistolary novel inspired by Les Liaisons dangereuses (1782) by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos. Her novel claimed to consist of authentic letters exchanged with her father the Marquis de Pompignan, with the names changed. "Madame Valmont" thus represented de Gouges herself, and "Monsieur de Flaucourt" was Pompignan.[54] The full title of the novel, published shortly after Pompignan's death, indicated its claim: Mémoires de Madame de Valmont sur l'ingratitude et la cruauté de la famille des Flaucourt avec la sienne dont les sieurs de Flaucourt on reçu tant de services (Madame de Valmont's Memoirs on the Ingratitude and Cruelty of the Flaucourt Family Towards her Own, which Rendered such Services to the Sirs Flaucourt).[55]
As a playwright, she charged into the contemporary political controversies and was often in the vanguard.[56] Alongside Marquis de Condorcet, de Gouges is considered one of France's earliest public opponents of slavery.
De Gouges' first staged production was originally titled Zamore et Mirza; ou L'Heureux Naufrage [Zamore and Mirza; or The Happy Shipwreck] (1788). Drawing both praise from abolitionists and attacks from pro-slavery traders, it is the first French play to focus not only on the inhumanity of slavery but also the first to feature the first-person perspective of an enslaved individual.[57]
In her 1788 "Réflexions sur les Hommes Nègres" she brought to attention the horrible plight of slaves in the French colonies and condemned the injustice of the institution declaring “I clearly realized that it was force and prejudice that had condemned them to that horrible slavery, in which Nature plays no role, and for which the unjust and powerful interests of Whites are alone responsible” likewise declaring that "Men everywhere are equal... Kings who are just do not want slaves; they know that they have submissive subjects."[58]
In the final act of L'Esclavage des Noirs de Gouges lets the French colonial master, not the slave, utter a prayer for freedom: "Let our common rejoicings be a happy portent of liberty". She drew a parallel between colonial slavery and political oppression in France. One of the slave protagonists explains that the French must gain their own freedom, before they can deal with slavery. De Gouges also openly attacked the notion that human rights were a reality in revolutionary France. The slave protagonist comments on the situation in France "The power of one Master alone is in the hands of a thousand Tyrants who trample the People under foot. The People will one day burst their chains and will claim all its rights under Natural law. It will teach the Tyrants just what a people united by long oppression and enlightened by sound philosophy can do". While it was common in France to equate political oppression to slavery, this was an analogy and not an abolitionist sentiment.[59]
Political pamphlets and letters
Over the course of her career, de Gouges published 68 pamphlets.
De Gouges wrote her famous
De Gouges was not the only feminist who attempted to influence the political structures of late Enlightenment France. But like the writings of Etta Palm d'Aelders, Theroigne de Mericourt, Claire Lacombe and Marquis de Condorcet, her arguments fell on deaf ears. At the end of the 18th century influential political actors such as Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord and Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès were not convinced of the case for equality.[63]
In her early political letters de Gouges made a point of being a woman, and that she spoke "as a woman". She addressed her public letters, published often as pamphlets, to statesmen such as
De Gouges signed her pamphlets with citoyenne. It has been suggested that she adopted this notion from Rousseau's letter To the Republic of Geneva, where he speaks directly to two types of Genevans: the "dear fellow citizens" or his "brothers", and the aimables et virtueses Citoyenne, that is the women citizens. In the public letter Remarques Patriotique from December 1788 de Gouges justified why she is publishing her political thoughts, arguing that "This dream, strange though it may seem, will show the nation a truly civic heart, a spirit that is always concerned with the public good".[64]
As the politics of revolutionary France changed and progressed de Gouges failed to become an actor on the political stage, but in her letters offered advice to the political establishment. Her proposition for a political order remained largely unchanged. She expresses faith in the Estates General and in reference to the estates of the realm, that the people of France (Third Estate) would be able to ensure harmony between the three estates, that is clergy, nobility and the people. Despite this she expresses loyalty for the ministers Jacques Necker and Charles Alexandre de Calonne. De Gouges opposes absolutism, but believed France should retain a constitutional monarchy.[64]
In her open letter to Marie-Antoinette, de Gouges declared:
I could never convince myself that a princess, raised in the midst of grandeur, had all the vices of baseness... Madame, may a nobler function characterize you, excite your ambition, and fix your attention. Only one whom chance had elevated to an eminent position can assume the task of lending weight to the progress of the Rights of Woman and of hastening its success. If you were less well informed, Madame, I might fear that your individual interests would outweigh those of your sex. You love glory; think, Madame, the greatest crimes immortalize one as much as the greatest virtues, but what a different fame in the annals of history! The one is ceaselessly taken as an example, and the other is eternally the execration of the human race.[65]
Public letters, or pamphlets, were the primary means for the working class and women writers to engage in the public debate of revolutionary France. The intention was not to court the favour of the addressee, often a public figure. Frequently these pamphlets were intended to stir up public anger. They were widely circulated within and outside France. De Gouges's contemporary
Legacy
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Although she was a celebrity in her lifetime and a prolific author, de Gouges became largely forgotten, but then rediscovered through a political biography by Olivier Blanc in the mid-1980s.[67]
On 6 March 2004, the junction of the Rues Béranger, Charlot, de Turenne, and de Franche-Comté in Paris was proclaimed the Place Olympe de Gouges. The square was inaugurated by the mayor of the
She is honoured in many street names across France, in the Salle Olympe de Gouges exhibition hall in rue Merlin, Paris, and the Parc Olympe de Gouges in Annemasse.[citation needed]
The 2018 play The Revolutionists by Lauren Gunderson centers on de Gouges and a dramatized version of her life as a playwright and activist during the Reign of Terror.[68]
Selected works
- Zamore et Mirza, ou l’heureux naufrage (Zamore and Mirza, or the Happy Shipwreck) 1784[69]
- Le Mariage inattendu de Chérubin (The Unexpected Marriage of Cherubin) 1786[70]
- L’Homme généreux (The Generous Man) 1786[71]
- Molière chez Ninon, ou le siècle des grands hommes (Molière at Ninon, or the Century of Great Men) 1788[72]
- Les Démocrates et les aristocrates (The Democrats and the Aristocrats) 1790[73]
- La Nécessité du divorce (The Necessity of Divorce) 1790[74]
- Le Couvent (The Convent) 1790[75]
- Mirabeau aux Champs Élysées (Mirabeau at the Champs Élysées) 1791[76]
- La France sauvée, ou le tyran détrôné (France saved, or the Dethroned Tyrant) 1792[77]
- L'Entrée de Dumouriez à Bruxelles (The Entrance of Dumouriez in Brussels) 1793[78]
Portrayals
- Flashback, a film released in November 2021
See also
- List of civil rights leaders
- List of women's rights activists
- The Women's March on Versailles
- Women's Petition to the National Assembly
References
- ^ Hunt, page 498
- ^ a b c d e Kuiper, Kathleen. "Researcher's Note: Who was Olympe de Gouges's father?". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-7658-0345-0.
- ^ ISBN 9780773538863.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7658-0345-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7658-0345-0.
- ^ Paul, Pauline (2 June 1989). "I Foresaw it All: The Amazing Life and Oeuvre of Olympe de Gouges". Die Zeit. Translated by Kai Artur Diers.
- ^ Diamond, page 98
- ^ Sokolnikova, page 88
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7658-0345-0.
- ISBN 978-3-423-30319-4.
- ISBN 978-0-7658-0345-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-0199743483.
- ^ Scott page 222
- ^ a b Hesse, Carla (2006). "Marie-Olympe De Gouges". In Merriman, John; Winter, Jay (eds.). Europe 1789–1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire. Charles Scribner's Sons.
- ISBN 978-0-7658-0345-0.
- ISBN 978-1611493559.
- ^ ISBN 978-1611493559.
- ISBN 978-0801499982.
- ISBN 978-0801499982.
- ISBN 978-0791434895.
- ^ a b Longman (1989). Chronicle of the French Revolution, p. 235
- ISBN 978-0199743483.
- ISBN 978-9163919695.
- ISBN 978-1781381847.
- ^ J. Michelet, La Révolution Française.
- ^ See Charles Monselet, Les Oubliés et les Dédaignés [The Forgotten and the Scorned]. See also Joan Scott in Rebel Daughters.
- ^ Longman (1989). Chronicle of the French Revolution, p. 311
- ^ Scott page 232
- ^ De Gouges, Olympe. Les Trois Urnes, Ou Le Salut De La Patrie, Par Un Voyageur Aérien. 1793. ["Urnes" is the French equivalent of ballot boxes.]
- ^ De Gouges, Olympe. Les Trois Urnes, Ou Le Salut De La Patrie, Par Un Voyageur Aérien. 1793.
- ^ Walsh, William Shepard (1913). A Handy Book of Curious Information: Comprising Strange Happenings in the Life of Men and Animals, Odd Statistics, Extraordinary Phenomena, and Out of the Way Facts Concerning the Wonderlands of the Earth. J. B. Lippincott & Co.. p. 834
- ^ Vanpee page 47
- ^ S2CID 191977456.
- ^ ISBN 978-1781882184.
- ISBN 978-0719066719.
- .
- ISBN 978-2-7491-1350-0
- ^
Mousset, Sophie (2007). Women's Rights and the French Revolution: A Biography of Olympe de Gouges. New Brunswick (US) & London: Transaction Publishers. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-7658-0345-0.
- ISBN 978-1611493559.
- ISBN 978-1611493559.
- ISBN 978-1611493559.
- ISBN 978-1611493559.
- ISBN 978-0199743483.
- ISBN 978-1576076149.
- ISBN 978-1576076149.
- ^ ISBN 978-0199743483.
- ISBN 978-0199743483.
- ISBN 978-1576076149.
- ISBN 978-1576076149.
- ISBN 978-1781882184.
- ^ Woolfrey, Joan. "Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 18 March 2024.
- ISBN 9781137346452
- ISBN 978-0-7658-0345-0.
- ISBN 978-0-7658-0345-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-0521564908.
- ^ Woolfrey, Joan. "Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793)". Retrieved 18 March 2024.
- ^ De Gouges, Olympe. Réflexions Sur Les Hommes Nègres. 1788.
- ISBN 978-0801499982.
- OCLC 54205328.
- ^ De Gouges, Olympe. Remarques Patriotiques. 1789.
- ISBN 978-1611493559.
- ISBN 978-0521564908.
- ^ ISBN 978-1611493559.
- ISBN 978-0199743483.
- ISBN 978-0521604284.
- ISBN 978-0791434895.
- ^ "Dramatists Play Service, Inc". www.dramatists.com. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-7658-0345-0.
- ^ de Gouges, Olympe. "LE MARIAGE INATTENDU DE CHÉRUBIN". Archived from the original on 2 November 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2021.
- ^ de Gouges, Olympe. "L'Homme généreux". Archived from the original on 2 November 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2021.
- ^ de Gouges, Olympe. "Molière chez Ninon". Archived from the original on 5 November 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2021.
- ^ de Gouges, Olympe. "Les Démocrates et les aristocrates". Archived from the original on 2 November 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2021.
- ^ de Gouges, Olympe. "La Nécessité du divorce". Archived from the original on 2 November 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2021.
- ^ de Gouges, Olympe. "Le Couvent". Archived from the original on 2 November 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2021.
- ^ de Gouges, Olympe. "Mirabeau aux Champs Élysées". Archived from the original on 2 November 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2021.
- ^ de Gouges, Olympe de (20 June 2019). La France Sauvée ou le Tyran Détrôné: A Dramaturgical Casebook.
- ^ de Gouges, Olympe. "Entrée de Dumouriez à Bruxelles". Archived from the original on 5 November 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2021.
Further reading
- Bergès, Sandrine (2022). Olympe de Gouges. Cambridge University Press.
External links
- Olympe de Gouges on Data.bnf.fr
- A website containing English translations of de Gouges's works
- An extensive article about Olympe de Gouges
- An excerpt from the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen
- ISBN 978-9703246137.
- Olympe de Gouges: bibliographical and biographical references. - Center for the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists