Arctic Ocean
Earth's ocean |
---|
Main five oceans division: Further subdivision: Marginal seas |
The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five
The Arctic Ocean includes the North Pole region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere and extends south to about 60°N. The Arctic Ocean is surrounded by Eurasia and North America, and the borders follow topographic features: the Bering Strait on the Pacific side and the Greenland Scotland Ridge on the Atlantic side. It is mostly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter. The Arctic Ocean's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes;[5] its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans, due to low evaporation, heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams, and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities. The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%.[1] The US National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years, showing a continuous decline in sea ice extent.[6] In September 2012, the Arctic ice extent reached a new record minimum. Compared to the average extent (1979–2000), the sea ice had diminished by 49%.[7]
History
North America
Human habitation in the North American polar region goes back at least 17,000–50,000 years, during the
Early Paleo-Eskimo groups included the Pre-Dorset (c. 3200–850 BC); the Saqqaq culture of Greenland (2500–800 BC); the Independence I and Independence II cultures of northeastern Canada and Greenland (c. 2400–1800 BC and c. 800–1 BC); and the Groswater of Labrador and Nunavik. The Dorset culture spread across Arctic North America between 500 BC and AD 1500. The Dorset were the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture in the Arctic before the migration east from present-day Alaska of the Thule people, ancestors of the modern Inuit.[9]
The Thule Tradition lasted from about 200 BC to AD 1600, arising around the Bering Strait and later encompassing almost the entire Arctic region of North America. The Thule people were the ancestors of the Inuit, who now live in Alaska, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Nunavik (northern Quebec), Labrador and Greenland.[10]
Europe
For much of
Early cartographers were unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land (as in Johannes Ruysch's map of 1507, or Gerardus Mercator's map of 1595) or water (as with Martin Waldseemüller's world map of 1507). The fervent desire of European merchants for a northern passage, the Northern Sea Route or the Northwest Passage, to "Cathay" (China) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such as Johann Homann featured an extensive "Oceanus Septentrionalis" at the northern edge of their charts.
The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond the
19th century
This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In England and other European nations, the
In the United States in the 1850s and 1860s, the explorers
Fridtjof Nansen was the first to make a nautical crossing of the Arctic Ocean, in the Fram Expedition from 1893 to 1896.
20th century
The first surface crossing of the ocean was led by
Since 1937,
In
Since 1954 commercial airlines have flown over the Arctic Ocean (see Polar route).
Geography
Size
The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 km2 (5,427,000 sq mi), almost the size of Antarctica.[14][15] The coastline is 45,390 km (28,200 mi) long.[14][16] It is the only ocean smaller than Russia, which has a land area of 16,377,742 km2 (6,323,482 sq mi).
Surrounding land and exclusive economic zones
The Arctic Ocean is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia (Russia and Norway), North America (Canada and the U.S. state of Alaska), Greenland, and Iceland.
Arctic exclusive economic zones[17] | |
---|---|
Country segment | Area (km2) |
Laptev Sea to Chukchi Sea, Russia | 2,088,075 |
Kara Sea, Russia | 1,058,129 |
Barents Sea, Russia | 1,199,008 |
Mainland Norway | 935,397 |
Svalbard Island , Norway |
804,907 |
Jan Mayen Island , Norway |
292,189 |
Mainland Iceland | 756,112 |
Mainland Greenland | 2,278,113 |
East Coast | 2,276,594 |
Arctic Canada | 3,021,355 |
Arctic United States | 508,814 |
Other | 1,500,000 |
Arctic Ocean total | 14,056,000 |
Note: Some parts of the areas listed in the table are located in the
Subareas and connections
The Arctic Ocean is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea and Labrador Sea.[1] (The Iceland Sea is sometimes considered part of the Greenland Sea, and sometimes separate.)
The largest seas in the Arctic Ocean:[18][19][20]
- Barents Sea—1.4 million km2
- Hudson Bay—1.23 million km2 (sometimes not included)
- Greenland Sea—1.205 million km2
- East Siberian Sea—987,000 km2
- Kara Sea—926,000 km2
- Laptev Sea—662,000 km2
- Chukchi Sea—620,000 km2
- Beaufort Sea—476,000 km2
- Amundsen Gulf—93,000 km2
- White Sea—90,000 km2
- Pechora Sea—81,263 km2
- Lincoln Sea—64,000 km2
- Prince Gustaf Adolf Sea
- Queen Victoria Sea
- Wandel Sea
Different authorities put various marginal seas in either the Arctic Ocean or the Atlantic Ocean, including: Hudson Bay,[21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28] Baffin Bay, the Norwegian Sea, and Hudson Strait.
Islands
The main islands and archipelagos in the Arctic Ocean are, from the prime meridian west:
- Jan Mayen (Norway)
- Iceland
- Greenland
- Arctic Archipelago (Canada, includes the Queen Elizabeth Islands and Baffin Island)
- Wrangel Island (Russia)
- New Siberian Islands (Russia)
- Severnaya Zemlya (Russia)
- Novaya Zemlya (Russia, includes Severny Island and Yuzhny Island)
- Franz Josef Land (Russia)
- Bear Island)
Ports
There are several ports and harbours on the Arctic Ocean.[29]
- Alaska
- Utqiaġvik(Barrow)
- Prudhoe Bay
- Canada
- Greenland: Nuuk (Nuuk Port and Harbour)
- Norway
- Mainland: Kirkenes and Vardø
- Svalbard: Longyearbyen
- Iceland
- Russia
- Barents Sea: Murmansk
- White Sea: Arkhangelsk
- Kara Sea: Labytnangi, Salekhard, Dudinka, Igarka and Dikson
- Laptev Sea: Tiksi
- East Siberian Sea: Pevek
Arctic shelves
The ocean's Arctic shelf comprises a number of
The Chukchi Plateau extends from the Chukchi Sea Shelf.
Underwater features
An
The two major basins are further subdivided by ridges into the Canada Basin (between Beaufort Shelf of North America and the Alpha Ridge), Makarov Basin (between the Alpha and Lomonosov Ridges), Amundsen Basin (between Lomonosov and Gakkel ridges), and Nansen Basin (between the Gakkel Ridge and the continental shelf that includes the Franz Josef Land).
Geology
The crystalline basement rocks of mountains around the Arctic Ocean were recrystallized or formed during the Ellesmerian orogeny, the regional phase of the larger Caledonian orogeny in the Paleozoic Era. Regional subsidence in the Jurassic and Triassic periods led to significant sediment deposition, creating many of the reservoirs for current day oil and gas deposits. During the Cretaceous period, the Canadian Basin opened, and tectonic activity due to the assembly of Alaska caused hydrocarbons to migrate toward what is now Prudhoe Bay. At the same time, sediments shed off the rising Canadian Rockies built out the large Mackenzie Delta.
The rifting apart of the
Throughout the Cenozoic Era, the subduction of the Pacific plate, the collision of India with Eurasia, and the continued opening of the North Atlantic created new hydrocarbon traps. The seafloor began spreading from the Gakkel Ridge in the Paleocene Epoch and the Eocene Epoch, causing the Lomonosov Ridge to move farther from land and subside.
Because of sea ice and remote conditions, the geology of the Arctic Ocean is still poorly explored. The Arctic Coring Expedition drilling shed some light on the Lomonosov Ridge, which appears to be continental crust separated from the Barents-Kara Shelf in the Paleocene and then starved of sediment. It may contain up to 10 billion barrels of oil. The Gakkel Ridge rift is also poorly understand and may extend into the Laptev Sea.[33][34]
Oceanography
Water flow
In large parts of the Arctic Ocean, the top layer (about 50 m [160 ft]) is of lower salinity and lower temperature than the rest. It remains relatively stable because the salinity effect on density is bigger than the temperature effect. It is fed by the freshwater input of the big Siberian and Canadian rivers (
Because of its relative isolation from other oceans, the Arctic Ocean has a uniquely complex system of water flow. It resembles some hydrological features of the
Water enters from both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and can be divided into three unique water masses. The deepest water mass is called Arctic Bottom Water and begins around 900 m (3,000 ft) depth.[35] It is composed of the densest water in the World Ocean and has two main sources: Arctic shelf water and Greenland Sea Deep Water. Water in the shelf region that begins as inflow from the Pacific passes through the narrow Bering Strait at an average rate of 0.8 Sverdrups and reaches the Chukchi Sea.[37] During the winter, cold Alaskan winds blow over the Chukchi Sea, freezing the surface water and pushing this newly formed ice out to the Pacific. The speed of the ice drift is roughly 1–4 cm/s.[36] This process leaves dense, salty waters in the sea that sink over the continental shelf into the western Arctic Ocean and create a halocline.[38]
This water is met by Greenland Sea Deep Water, which forms during the passage of winter storms. As temperatures cool dramatically in the winter, ice forms, and intense vertical convection allows the water to become dense enough to sink below the warm saline water below.[35] Arctic Bottom Water is critically important because of its outflow, which contributes to the formation of Atlantic Deep Water. The overturning of this water plays a key role in global circulation and the moderation of climate.
In the depth range of 150–900 m (490–2,950 ft) is a water mass referred to as Atlantic Water. Inflow from the North Atlantic Current enters through the Fram Strait, cooling and sinking to form the deepest layer of the halocline, where it circles the Arctic Basin counter-clockwise. This is the highest volumetric inflow to the Arctic Ocean, equalling about 10 times that of the Pacific inflow, and it creates the Arctic Ocean Boundary Current.[37] It flows slowly, at about 0.02 m/s.[35] Atlantic Water has the same salinity as Arctic Bottom Water but is much warmer (up to 3 °C [37 °F]). In fact, this water mass is actually warmer than the surface water and remains submerged only due to the role of salinity in density.[35] When water reaches the basin, it is pushed by strong winds into a large circular current called the Beaufort Gyre. Water in the Beaufort Gyre is far less saline than that of the Chukchi Sea due to inflow from large Canadian and Siberian rivers.[38]
The final defined water mass in the Arctic Ocean is called Arctic Surface Water and is found in the depth range of 150–200 m (490–660 ft). The most important feature of this water mass is a section referred to as the sub-surface layer. It is a product of Atlantic water that enters through canyons and is subjected to intense mixing on the Siberian Shelf.[35][39] As it is entrained, it cools and acts a heat shield for the surface layer on account of weak mixing between layers.[40][41]
However, over the past couple of decades a combination of the warming[42] and the shoaling of Atlantic water[43] are leading to the increasing influence of Atlantic water heat in melting sea ice in the eastern Arctic. The most recent estimates, for 2016–2018, indicate the oceanic heat flux to the surface has now overtaken the atmospheric flux in the eastern Eurasian Basin.[44] Over the same period the weakening halocline stratification has coincided with increasing upper ocean currents thought to be associated with declining sea ice, indicate increasing mixing in this region.[45] In contrast direct measurements of mixing in the western Arctic indicate the Atlantic water heat remains isolated at intermediate depths even under the 'perfect storm' conditions of the Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012.[46]
Waters originating in the Pacific and Atlantic both exit through the Fram Strait between
As noted, the process of ice formation and movement is a key driver in Arctic Ocean circulation and the formation of water masses. With this dependence, the Arctic Ocean experiences variations due to seasonal changes in sea ice cover. Sea ice movement is the result of wind forcing, which is related to a number of meteorological conditions that the Arctic experiences throughout the year. For example, the Beaufort High—an extension of the
Sea ice
Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice that varies in extent and thickness seasonally. The mean extent of the Arctic sea ice has been continuously decreasing in the last decades, declining at a rate of currently 12.85% per decade since 1980 from the average winter value of 15,600,000 km2 (6,023,200 sq mi).[48] The seasonal variations are about 7,000,000 km2 (2,702,700 sq mi), with the maximum in April and minimum in September. The sea ice is affected by wind and ocean currents, which can move and rotate very large areas of ice. Zones of compression also arise, where the ice piles up to form pack ice.[49][50][51]
Climate
The Arctic Ocean is contained in a polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges. Winters are characterized by the polar night, extreme cold, frequent low-level temperature inversions, and stable weather conditions.[52] Cyclones are only common on the Atlantic side.[53] Summers are characterized by continuous daylight (midnight sun), and air temperatures can rise slightly above 0 °C (32 °F). Cyclones are more frequent in summer and may bring rain or snow.[53] It is cloudy year-round, with mean cloud cover ranging from 60% in winter to over 80% in summer.[54]
The temperature of the surface water of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant at approximately −1.8 °C (28.8 °F), near the freezing point of seawater.
The density of sea water, in contrast to fresh water, increases as it nears the freezing point and thus it tends to sink. It is generally necessary that the upper 100–150 m (330–490 ft) of ocean water cools to the freezing point for sea ice to form.[55] In the winter, the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extreme temperatures seen on the Antarctic continent.
There is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the Arctic ice pack is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April—about 20–50 cm (7.9–19.7 in) over the frozen ocean.
The climate of the Arctic region has varied significantly during the Earth's history. During the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum 55 million years ago, when the global climate underwent a warming of approximately 5–8 °C (9–14 °F), the region reached an average annual temperature of 10–20 °C (50–68 °F).[56][57][58] The surface waters of the northernmost[59] Arctic Ocean warmed, seasonally at least, enough to support tropical lifeforms (the dinoflagellates Apectodinium augustum) requiring surface temperatures of over 22 °C (72 °F).[60]
Currently, the Arctic region is warming twice as fast as the rest of the planet.[61][62]
Biology
Due to the pronounced seasonality of 2–6 months of
Endangered marine species in the Arctic Ocean include
Natural resources
The political dead zone near the centre of the sea is also the focus of a mounting dispute between the United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and Denmark.[67] It is significant for the global energy market because it may hold 25% or more of the world's undiscovered oil and gas resources.[68]
Environmental concerns
Arctic ice melting
The
Warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh melt-water to enter the north Atlantic, possibly disrupting global ocean current patterns. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's climate might then ensue.[70]
As the extent of sea ice diminishes and sea level rises, the effect of storms such as the Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 on open water increases, as does possible salt-water damage to vegetation on shore at locations such as the Mackenzie Delta as stronger storm surges become more likely.[74]
Clathrate breakdown
Other concerns
Other
On 16 July 2015, five nations (United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark/Greenland) signed a declaration committing to keep their fishing vessels out of a 1.1 million square mile zone in the central Arctic Ocean near the North Pole. The agreement calls for those nations to refrain from fishing there until there is better scientific knowledge about the marine resources and until a regulatory system is in place to protect those resources.[84][85]
See also
References
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Further reading
- Neatby, Leslie H., Discovery in Russian and Siberian Waters (1973), ISBN 0-8214-0124-6.
- Ray, L., and B. Bacon, eds., The Arctic Ocean (1982), ISBN 0-333-31017-9.
- Thorén, Ragnar V.A., Picture Atlas of the Arctic (1969), ISBN 0-8214-0124-6.
External links
- Arctic Council
- Arctic Environmental Atlas Interactive map
- Arctic Great Rivers Observatory (ArcticGRO)
- Arctic Ocean. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Daily Arctic Ocean Rawinsonde Data from Soviet Drifting Ice Stations (1954–1990) Archived 19 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine at NSIDC
- NOAA North Pole Web Cam Images from Web Cams deployed in spring on an ice floe
- NOAA Near-realtime North Pole Weather Data Data from instruments deployed on an ice floe
- International Polar Foundation
- "Daily report of Arctic ice cover based on satellite data". nsidc.org. National Snow and Ice Data Center.