Svādhyāya
Svādhyāya (Devanagari: स्वाध्याय) is a Sanskrit term which means self-study and especially the recitation of the Vedas and other sacred texts.[1][2][3] It is also a broader concept with several meanings. In various schools of Hinduism, Svadhyaya is a Niyama (virtuous observance) connoting introspection and "study of self".[4]
Etymology, meaning and usage
Svādhyāya is a compound Sanskrit word composed of sva (स्व) + adhyāya (अध्याय). Adhyāya means "a lesson, lecture, chapter; reading".[5] Svā means "own, one's own, self, the human soul".[6] Therefore, Svādhyāya literally means "one's own reading, lesson".
Svādhyāya is also a compound Sanskrit word composed of svā (स्वा) + dhyāya (ध्याय). Dhyāya means "meditating on".[7] The root of Adhyāya and Dhyāya is “Dhyai” (ध्यै) which means “meditate, contemplate, think of”.[8] The term Svādhyāya therefore, also connotes “contemplation, meditation, reflection of one self”, or simply “to study one’s own self”.[9]
The term Svadhyaya has other meanings. In the Śruti, it refers to the historical practice of self-reciting Vedas to ensure it is memorized and faithfully transmitted, without writing, by the word of mouth, to the next generation.[10] In various schools of Hinduism, particularly Yoga, Svadhyaya is also a niyama, a virtuous behavior. As a virtue, it means "study of self", "self-reflection", "introspection, observation of self".[11][12][13]
Svādhyāya is translated in a number of ways. Some translate it as the "study of the scriptures and darśanas."[14] Some translators simply use the word "study" without qualifying the type of study.[15][16] MacNeill translates it as "self-study or spiritual self-education".[17] Dhyāya, when used in the context of self study in ancient and medieval Indian texts, is synonymous with Abhyasa, Adhi and Viks; while Adhyāya, when used in context of reciting and reading in Indian texts, is synonymous with Anukti, Nipatha[18] and Patha.[19][20]
Svadhyaya in ancient literature
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Upanishads
Taittiriya Upanishad, however, adds in verse 1.9.1, that along with the virtue of svādhyāyā process of learning, one must teach and share (pravacana) what one learns.[23] This is expressed by the phrase "svādhyāyapravacane ca", translated as "and learning and teaching" by Gambhīrānanda[25]
In verse 1.11.1, the final chapter in the education of a student, the Taittiriya Upanishad reminds,[26]
सत्यंवद । धर्मंचर । स्वाध्यायान्माप्रमदः ।
Speak the Satya, follow the Dharma, from Svadhyaya never cease.
One of the earliest mention of Svādhyāya is found in
Other scriptures
Patanjali's Yogasutra, in verse II.44, recommends Svadhyaya as follows
स्वाध्यायादिष्टदेवतासंप्रयोगः॥
Study thy self, discover the divine.
— Patanjali’s Yogasutra, II.44 [31]
Vishnu Smriti's verse 22.92, states that "human body is cleansed by water, the mind is cleansed by truth, the soul by self-study and meditation, while understanding is cleansed by knowledge".[32]
Vasistha
Svādhyāya is mentioned as one of the virtues in Bhagavad Gita 16.1.[35] Svadhyaya is mentioned a second time in Bhagavad Gita verse 17.15 as a component of the discipline of one's speech by which, states the verse, " speak words that are truthful, kind, helpful, and elevates those who hear it".[36][37]
Svadhyaya as a historical practice
- Learning one's Vedic recension
As a tool for memorization, svādhyāya had a unique meaning for Vedic scholars as the principal tool for the
The Vedas had not been committed to writing in ancient times. Almost all printed editions depend on the late manuscripts that are hardly older than 500 years, not on the still-extant and superior oral tradition.
The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a tape-recording.... Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present.[40]"
The commentator
The
Exceptions
There are certain days on which svādhyāya were prohibited, these were called anadhyāya, after which svādhyāya must be resumed on the following day; therefore the day of resumption is also called svādhyāya.[45]
Svadhyaya as a Niyama
Svādhyāya is one of the three key elements in the practice of yoga as defined in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, appearing in the opening verse of Book two on spiritual practice and elaborated upon in two other verses.[46] Patanjali mentions svādhyāya a second time as one of the five recommended observances (niyamas), along with purity, contentment, austerity, and self-surrender.[47] The five niyamas, together with the five abstentions (yamas),[48] have been described as "'the ten commandments' of the Sāṁkhya-Yoga."[49]
The practice of Svadhyaya as a Niyama is perfected in many forms.[9] One form of Svadhyaya is mantra meditation, where certain sound constructs pregnant with meaning are recited, anchoring the mind to one thought. This practice helps draw the mind away from outward-going tendencies, silencing the crowding of thoughts, and ultimately towards inward feeling of resonance.[9] It can alternately be any music, sermon, chant, inspirational book that absorbs the person to a state of absorption, trance, unifying oneness.[50]
Svadhyaya is practiced as a self-reflection process, where one silently meditates, in Asana, on one's own behaviors, motivations and plans. Svadhyaya is, in a sense, for one's spirit and mind a process equivalent to watching one's body in a non-distorting mirror.[51] This self-study, in Yoga, is not merely contemplation of one's own motives and behaviors, but also of one's circumstances and the environment one is in, assessing where one is in one's life, what is one's life direction, if and how desirable changes may lead to a more fulfilling Self.[50][52][53]
Notes
- ^ For compound derivation as स्व + अध्यायः and meanings of svādhyāya as "1. self-recitation, muttering to one-self. -2. study of the Vedas, sacred study, perusal of sacred books. -3. the Veda itself. -4. a day on which sacred study is enjoined to be resumed after suspension." see: Apte 1965, p. 1016, right column.
- ^ For definition of "स्वाध्याय, m. repeating to oneself, study of the Veda; repetition of the Veda aloud" see: Macdonell 1996, p. 373, left column.
- ^ For definition as "the regular habit of study of religious books", see: Chatterjee and Datta (1984), p. 303.
- ISBN 978-3-642-02660-7, pages 183-203
- ^ AdhyAya, Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
- ^ SvA, Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
- ^ dhyAyam, Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
- ^ ध्यै Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
- ^ ISBN 978-0893892470, pages 191-197
- ^ a b For traditional uses of svādhyāya in the sense of repetition of scriptural mantras for purposes of memorization, see: Arya 1986, p. 6.
- ^ C Woiwode (2013), Transcendence and Spirituality Human Needs and the Practices of the Indian Svadhyaya Movement, Journal of Developing Societies, 29(3): 233-257
- ^ KH Garland (2010), Yoga, Pradhana Dharma, and the Helping Professions: Recognizing the Risk of Codependency and the Necessity of Self-Care, International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 1(1): 90-97
- ISBN 978-1888799668, pages 139–73
- ^ Bhattacharyya 1956, pp. 25–26, volume 4.
- ^ For translation of YS 2.1 as ""Purificatory action, study, and making God the motive of action, constitute the yoga of action." see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, p. 462.
- Prabhavananda and Isherwood, p. 95.
- ISBN 978-0470658802, Chapter 18
- ISBN 978-8172110598, page 119
- ^ Study Monier Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany; see discussion notes and cited Indian texts
- ^ Sanskrit English Dictionary Koeln University, Germany; Search for each of: abhyAsam, adhI, vIkS, anUkti, nipaTha, paTh
- ISBN 8190282727, page 763, and Zaehner 1966, p. 136
- ^ शम
- ^ ISBN 8190282727, page 763
- ^ For translation, see: Zaehner 1966, p. 136.
- ^ For Sanskrit text of Taittirīya Upanishad 1.9.1; translation of स्वाध्यायप्रवचने च (svādhyāyapravacane ca) as "and learning and teaching (are to be practiced)"; and comment that "Svādhyāyaḥ is study (of the scriptures). Pravacanam is teaching (of the scriptures)", see: Gambhīrānanda 1986, pp. 40–43.
- ^ For context as "the teacher gives the scholar who is departing on his life's journey", and translation of opening phrases of Taittirīya Upanishad 1.11, see: Winternitz 1972, p. 259, vol. 1.
- ISBN 8190282727, page 197-198
- ^ For text and translation of Taittirīya Upanishad 1.11.1 phrase svādhyāyānmā (= svādhyāyāt "from study" + mā pramadaḥ "make no deviation") as "Make no mistake about study", see: Gambhīrānanda 1986, pp. 47–48.
- ^ For translation of Taittirīya Upanishad 1.11.1 phrase as "Do not neglect study [of the Veda]", see: Zaehner 1966, p. 136; For translation of Taittirīya Upanishad 1.11.1 phrase svādhyāyapravacanābhyāṁ na pramaditavyam as "Do not be negligent in the study and recitation [of the Veda]", see: Gambhīrānanda 1986, pp. 47–48.
- ^ Monier-Williams
- ISBN 978-0231144858, page 209
- ^ Original: Vishnu Smriti, Verse 22.92, page 68 (in Sanskrit)
Translation: Vishnu Smriti Julius Jolly (Translator), Charles Scribner & Sons, Chapter XXII, Verse 92, page 97 - ^ a b W.O. Kaebler, Tapta-Marga: Asceticism and Initiation in Vedic India, State University of New York Press, pages 53-60, 112-115
- ^ Walter O. Kaelber (1979), Tapas and Purification in Early Hinduism, Numen, Vol. 26, Fasc. 2 (Dec., 1979), pages 192-214
- ^ For text of BG 16.1 and translation of svādhyāya as "study of the scriptures", see: Chidbhavananda, p. 779.
- ^ For text of BG 17.15 and translation of svādhyāyābhyasanaṁ as "the practice of the study of scriptures" see: Gambhīrānanda 1997, pp. 644–645.
- ISBN 978-1-4384-2841-3, page 648
- ^ Quotation of "... almost all printed editions depend on the late manuscripts that are hardly older than 500 years, not on the still extant and superior oral tradition" is from: Witzel, M., "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 69.
- ^ For definition of śruti as "sacred knowledge orally transmitted" see: Monier-Williams 1899, p. 1101.
- ^ For the quotation comparing recital to a "tape-recording" see: Witzel, M., "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, pp. 68–69.
- ^ For text of Sāyana commentary as karma-kārana-bhūta-svādhyāya see: Sontakke 1972, p. 19.
- definition of philosophyand the twofold division of expression, see: Raghavendrachar, H. N., "Madhva's Brahma-Mīmāṁsā", in: Bhattacharyya (1956), volume 3, p. 330.
- ^ For Taittirīya Upaniṣad as part of Yajur Veda, and continued popularity with students of Vedic chant, see: Gambhīrānanda 1986, p. iv.
- ISBN 978-0-470-65880-2, pages 3-14
- Monier-Williams
- ^ For Sanskrit text of verses 2.1, 2.32, and 2.44 and discussion as a key practice, see: Taimni 1961, pp. 127–128, 220, 250.
- ^ For text and translation of YS 2.32, and translation of niyama as "observances", see: Taimni 1961, p. 220.
- ^ For the five yamas or "restraints" as: abstention from injury (ahiṁsā, nonviolence), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya), control of the carnal desires and passions (brahmacarya), and non-acceptance of unnecessary gifts (aparigraha), see: Chatterjee and Datta (1984), p. 302.
- ^ For quotation including svādhyāya in the comparison to the ten commandments, see: Hiriyanna, M., "The Sāṁkhya", in: Bhattacharyya 1956, p. 49, volume 3.
- ^ a b Gary Kraftsow, Polishing the mirror, Yoga Journal, February 25, 2008
- ISBN 978-0140196290, pages 22-27
- ^ Nina Markil, Hatha Yoga: Benefits and Principles for a More Meaningful Practice, ACSM'S Health & Fitness Journal, September/October 2010, 14(5): pp 19-24
- ISBN 978-1846942952, pages 33-34
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- Arya, Usharbudh (1986), Yoga-Sūtras of Patañjali (Volume 1 ed.), Honesdale, Pennsylvania: The Himalayan International Institute, ISBN 0-89389-092-8
- Bhattacharyya, Haridas, ed. (1956), The Cultural Heritage of India, Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Four volumes.
- Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (Eighth Reprint ed.), Calcutta: University of Calcutta
- Chidbhavananda, Swami (1997), The Bhagavad Gita, Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam
- Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., ISBN 1-4051-3251-5
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- Karpātri, Swāmi (1979), Vedārtha-Pārijāta, Calcutta: Śri Rādhā krishna Dhanuka Prakāśan Sansthān Introduction by Pattābhirām Śāstri. Sanskrit and Hindi; Introduction has an English translation as well by Elliot M. Stern. Available from: Sañchālaka, Vedaśāstra Research Centre, Kedārghat, Vārānasi, India.
- ISBN 81-215-0715-4
- (Manusmriti) :Translation by G. Bühler (1886), Sacred Books of the East: The Laws of Manu (Vol. XXV), Oxford Available online as The Laws of Manu
- Monier-Williams, Monier (1899), A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
- Pandey, Rajbali (1969), Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-Religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments (Second Revised ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0434-1
- ISBN 0-87481-041-8
- ISBN 0-691-01958-4
- Śāstri, Hargovinda (1978), Amarkoṣa with Hindi commentary, Vārānasi: Chowkhambā Sanskrit Series Office
- Sontakke, N. S. (1972), Sontakke, N. S.; Rājvade, V. K. (eds.), Rgveda-Samhitā: Śrimat-Sāyanāchārya virachita-bhāṣya-sametā (First ed.), Pune: Vaidika Samśodhana Maṇḍala. The Editorial Board for the First Edition included N. S. Sontakke (Managing Editor), V. K. Rājvade, M. M. Vāsudevaśāstri, and T. S. Varadarājaśarmā. This work is entirely in Sanskrit.
- ISBN 81-7059-212-7
- Winternitz, Maurice (1972), History of Indian Literature (Second revised reprint ed.), New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation Two volumes. First published 1927 by the University of Calcutta.
- Zaehner, R. C. (1966), Hindu Scriptures, London: Everyman's Library
- Zaehner, R. C. (1969), The Bhagavad Gītā (Oxford Paperbacks ed.), London: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-501666-1