Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)
Kingdom of Hungary
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1000–1301 Árpád dynasty | |||||||||||||
Coat of arms of the 13th century
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Religion |
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King | |||||||||||||
• 1000–1038 (first) | Stephen I | ||||||||||||
• 1290–1301 (the last king of Árpáds) | Andrew III | ||||||||||||
Palatine | |||||||||||||
• c. 1009–1038 (first) | Samuel Aba | ||||||||||||
• 1298–1299 (the last palatine of the Árpád reign) | Roland Rátót | ||||||||||||
Legislature | Parlamentum Generale (since 1290s)[7] | ||||||||||||
Historical era | Medieval | ||||||||||||
• Established | 1000 | ||||||||||||
1102 | |||||||||||||
1222 | |||||||||||||
1224 | |||||||||||||
• Resettlement of Cumans and Jasz people | 1238-1239 | ||||||||||||
1241-1242 | |||||||||||||
1285-1286 | |||||||||||||
• Death of King Andrew III, the last member of the House of Árpád | 1301 | ||||||||||||
Area | |||||||||||||
1200[8] | 282,870 km2 (109,220 sq mi) | ||||||||||||
Population | |||||||||||||
• 1200[8] | 2,000,000 | ||||||||||||
ISO 3166 code | HU | ||||||||||||
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History of Hungary |
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Hungary portal |
History of Slovakia | |
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1918–1938 | |
Slovak Soviet Republic | 1919 |
Slovakia during World War II | 1939–1945 |
Slovak Republic | 1939–1945 |
Slovak National Uprising | 1944 |
Slovaks in Czechoslovakia | 1948–1989 |
Slovak Socialist Republic | 1969–1990 |
Velvet Revolution | 1989 |
Post-revolution Czechoslovakia | 1989–1992 |
Dissolution of Czechoslovakia | 1993 |
The
Rich in uncultivated lands, silver, gold, and salt deposits, Hungary became the preferred destination of mainly German, Italian, and
The predominance of royal estates initially assured the sovereign's preeminent position, but the alienation of royal lands gave rise to the emergence of a self-conscious group of lesser landholders, known as "
Background
The Magyars, or
Hungarians lived in
Although they were pagan, the Hungarians demonstrated a tolerant attitude towards Christians, Jews, and Muslims.
When Géza died in 997,
"Patrimonial" kingdom
King St Stephen (1000–1038)
Stephen was crowned the first
Stephen developed a state similar to the monarchies of contemporary
If any warrior debased by lewdness abducts a girl to be his wife without the consent of her parents, we decreed that the girl should be returned to her parents, even if he did anything by force to her, and the abductor shall pay ten steers for the abduction, although he may afterwards have made peace with the girl's parents.
Stephen I:27, 1000–1038[48]
From a legal perspective, Hungarian society was divided into freemen and
Pagan revolts, wars, and consolidation (1038–1116)
Stephen I survived his son,
A new civil war broke out when Duke Béla claimed the crown for himself in 1059, but his three sons accepted the rule of
No one shall buy or sell except in the market. If, in violation of this anyone buys stolen property, everyone shall perish: the buyer, the seller, and the witnesses. If, however, they agreed to sell something of their own, they shall lose that thing and its price, and the witnesses shall lose as much too. But if the deal was made in the market, and agreement shall be concluded in front of a judge, a toll-gatherer, and witnesses, and if the purchased goods later appear to be stolen, the buyer shall escape penalty ...
Ladislaus II:7, 1077–1095[71]
The death of Ladislaus's brother-in-law King
Coloman routed two bands of crusaders (the perpetrators of the
Like Ladislaus I, Coloman proved to be a great legislator, but he prescribed less severe punishments than his uncle had done.
The kingdom was sparsely populated, with an average population density of four or five people per 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi).
Expansion and colonization (1116–1196)
Unsuccessful wars with the Republic of Venice, the Byzantine Empire, and other neighboring states characterized the reign of Coloman's son, Stephen II, who succeeded his father in 1116.[104] The earliest mention of the Székelys—a Hungarian-speaking community of free warriors—is in connection with the young king's first war against the Duchy of Bohemia. The Székelys lived in scattered groups along the borders, but they were moved to the easternmost regions of Transylvania in the 12th century.[105] Stephen II died childless in 1131.[104] His cousin, Duke Álmos' blind son Béla II, succeeded him. During his reign, the kingdom was administered by his wife, Helena of Serbia, who ordered the massacre of the lords whom she blamed for her husband's mutilation.[106] Boris Kalamanos, an alleged son of King Coloman who attempted to seize the throne from Béla II, received no internal support.[104]
If anyone of the rank of count has even in a trivial matter offended against the king or, as sometimes happens, has been unjustly accused of this, an emissary from the court, though he be of very lowly station and unattended, seizes him in the midst of his retinue, puts him in chains, and drags him off to various forms of punishment. No formal sentence is asked of the prince through his peers, ... no opportunity of defending himself is granted the accused, but the will of the prince alone is held by all as sufficient.
Otto of Freising, The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa[107]
Béla II's son,
Géza promoted the colonization of the border zones.
Géza was succeeded in 1162 by his eldest son, Stephen III.[104] His uncles, Ladislaus II and Stephen IV, claimed the crown for themselves.[117] Emperor Manuel I Komnenos took advantage of the internal conflicts and forced the young king to cede Dalmatia and the Szerémség to the Byzantines in 1165.[118] Stephen III set an example for the development of towns by granting liberties to the Walloon "guests" in Székesfehérvár, including immunity from the jurisdiction of the local ispán.[47][97][119] When Stephen died childless in 1172, his brother, Béla III, ascended the throne.[120][121] He reconquered Dalmatia and the Szerémség in the 1180s.[122][123]
A contemporary list shows that Béla's total income was the equivalent of 32 tonnes of silver per year,[124] but this number is clearly exaggerated.[112] According to the list, more than 50 percent of his revenues derived from the annual renewal of the silver currency, and from trade-related duties.[125] Austrian custom tariffs of the period indicate that Hungary was a major supplier of grain, leather, timber, wine, wax, honey, fish, cattle, sheep, pigs, copper, tin, lead, iron, and salt.[126] Royal revenues were due either to the royal chamber or to the king as landowner. The distinction between them was of fundamental importance because the ispáns received one third of the chamber revenues collected in their counties. In-kind taxes were typically imposed on vineyards, and herds of pigs or oxen. Some privileged communities paid lump sum taxes to the royal chamber. Examples include the foreign settlers in Transylvania, who were to pay 15,000 marks per year.[127]
Béla emphasized the importance of making records on judicial proceedings, which substantiates reports in later Hungarian chronicles of his order regarding the obligatory use of written petitions.
Development of the Estates of the realm
Age of Golden Bulls (1196–1241)
Béla III's son and successor,
Andrew II was strongly influenced by his wife,
The Golden Bull also prohibited the employment of Muslims and Jews in royal administration.
Andrew II made several attempts to occupy the neighboring
Mongol invasion (1241–1242)
[The Mongols] burnt the church [in Várad], together with the women and whatever there was in the church. In other churches they perpetrated such crimes to the women that it is better to keep silent ... Then they ruthlessly beheaded the nobles, citizens, soldiers and
canonson a field outside the city. ... After they had destroyed everything, and an intolerable stench arose from the corpses, they left the place empty. People hiding in the nearby forests came back to find some food. And while they were searching among the stones and the corpses, the [Mongols] suddenly returned and of those living whom they found there, none was left alive.
Master Roger, Epistle[167]
The kingdom continued to exist.
Last Árpáds (1242–1301)
After the Mongol withdrawal, Béla IV abandoned his policy of recovering former crown lands.
New villages appeared, consisting of timber houses built side by side in equal parcels of land.
Although threatening letters sent to Béla IV by the khans of the Golden Horde proved that the danger of a new Mongol invasion still existed,[191] he adopted an expansionist foreign policy.[178] Frederick II of Austria died fighting against Hungarian troops in 1246,[192] and Béla IV's son-in-law, Rostislav Mikhailovich, annexed large territories along the kingdom's southern frontiers.[193][194] Conflicts between the elderly monarch and his heir caused a civil war in the 1260s.[194]
Béla IV and his son jointly confirmed the liberties of the royal servants and started referring to them as
The wealthiest landholders forced the lesser nobles to join their retinue, which increased their power.
When Ladislaus IV was murdered in 1290, the
Aftermath
With Andrew III's death, the male line of the House of Árpád became extinct, and a period of anarchy began.[213][215] Charles Robert was crowned king with a provisional crown, but most lords and bishops refused to yield to him because they regarded him as a symbol of the Holy See's attempts to control Hungary.[213] They elected as king the twelve-year-old Wenceslaus of Bohemia, who was descended from Béla IV of Hungary in the female line.[216][217] The young king could not consolidate his position because many lords, especially those who held domains in the southern region of the kingdom, continued to support Charles Robert.[218] Wenceslaus left Hungary for Bohemia in mid-1304.[218] After he inherited Bohemia in 1305, he abandoned his claim to Hungary in favor of Otto III, Duke of Bavaria.[216][218]
Otto, who was a grandson of Béla IV of Hungary, was crowned king, but only the Kőszegis and the Transylvanian Saxons regarded him as the lawful monarch.[218] He was captured in Transylvania by Ladislaus Kán, who forced him to leave Hungary.[216] The majority of the lords and prelates elected Charles Robert king at a Diet on October 10, 1307.[219] He was crowned king with the Holy Crown of Hungary in Székesfehérvár by the Archbishop of Esztergom, as required by customary law, on August 27, 1310.[219] During the next decade, he launched a series of military campaigns against the oligarchs to restore royal authority.[220] Charles Robert reunited the kingdom after the death of the most powerful lord, Matthew Csák, which enabled him to conquer Csák's large province in the northeast of Hungary in 1321.[221][222]
See also
- Banat in the Middle Ages
- List of Hungarian monarchs
- Bulgarian-Hungarian Wars
Notes
- ^ The last pagan Cumans were definitely christianized in the 16th century, mostly by conversion to Protestantism.
- ^ For example, cseresznye ("cherry"), iga ("yoke"), kovács ("blacksmith"), ablak ("window"), patkó ("horseshoe"), and bálvány ("idol") were borrowed from Slavic.[20]
- ^ The extant copy of the foundation charter of the convent of nuns at Veszprémvölgy was written in Greek.[43]
- ^ Examples include Födémes ("beekeeper"), Hodász ("beaver hunter"), Gerencsér ("potter"), and Taszár ("carpenter") [58]
- ^ Olasz is the modern Hungarian word for Italians, but in the Middle Ages the term also covered other peoples speaking a Romance language.[97]
References
- ^ "Árpád-házi királyi zászló a 12. sz. végétől". Magyar Nemzeti és Történelmi Jelképek (in Hungarian). Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2019.
- ^ "Az Árpád-házi királyok családi zászlaja". Magyar Nemzeti és Történelmi Jelképek (in Hungarian). Archived from the original on 19 May 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2019.
- ISBN 978-963-09-6494-4.
- ^ History of Esztergom
- ISBN 9789637096990
- ^ Kulcsár, Krisztina (13 November 2019). "A magyar nyelv hivatalossá tételéről rendelkező törvény, 1844 (Act on the officialization of the Hungarian language, 1844)". Magyar Nemzeti Levéltár (National Archives of Hungary).
- ^ Elemér Hantos: The Magna Carta of the English And of the Hungarian Constitution (1904)
- ^ J. C. Russell, "Population in Europe 500–1500", in The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Middle Ages, ed. Carlo M. Cipolla (London: Collins/Fontana Books, 1972), p. 25.
- ^ Bak 1993, p. 269.
- ^ Fukuyama, Francis (February 6, 2012). "What's Wrong with Hungary". Democracy, Development, and the Rule of Law (blog). The American Interest. Retrieved September 18, 2017.
- ^ Kirschbaum 1996, p. 40.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 6.
- ^ Molnár 2001, pp. 14–16.
- ^ Makkai 1994, p. 13.
- ^ Spinei 2003, pp. 81–82.
- ^ Spinei 2003, p. 82.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 21.
- ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 20.
- ^ Spinei 2003, pp. 19–22.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 44, 57.
- ^ Spiesz, Caplovic & Bolchazy 2006, p. 28.
- ^ Spinei 2003, p. 57.
- ^ a b Curta 2006, pp. 192–193.
- ^ a b Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, p. 402.
- ^ Spinei 2003, p. 16.
- ^ Nagy 2018, pp. 475–476.
- ^ Spinei 2003, pp. 78–79.
- ^ a b c Makkai 1994, p. 16.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 51.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 26.
- ^ Molnár 2001, p. 20.
- ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 27.
- ^ a b c d Makkai 1994, p. 17.
- ^ a b c d Kontler 1999, p. 53.
- ^ Kirschbaum 1996, p. 41.
- ^ a b Kontler 1999, p. 58.
- ^ a b c d e Engel 2001, p. 29.
- ^ a b c Sedlar 1994, p. 207.
- ^ a b Spiesz, Caplovic & Bolchazy 2006, p. 29.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 56.
- ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 46.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 72.
- ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, pp. 155, 402.
- ^ Curta 2019, pp. 597–598.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 38.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 45–46.
- ^ a b c Makkai 1994, p. 20.
- ^ The Laws of the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary, 1000–1301 (Stephen I:27), p. 6.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 66–69, 74.
- ^ a b Engel 2001, pp. 68–69.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 69–70.
- ^ Rady 2000, pp. 19–21.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 70.
- ^ a b Weisz 2018, p. 261.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 74.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 68.
- ^ a b Makkai 1994, p. 18.
- ^ a b c d e f Engel 2001, p. 59.
- ^ Laszlovszky 2018, p. 92.
- ^ Molnár 2001, p. 26.
- ^ Makkai 1994, pp. 18–19.
- ^ a b Kontler 1999, p. 59.
- ^ Kontler 1999, pp. 59–60.
- ^ Spiesz, Caplovic & Bolchazy 2006, p. 32.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 31.
- ^ a b Curta 2019, p. 596.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 33.
- ^ Kontler 1999, pp. 61–62.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 62.
- ^ Berend 2001, pp. 75, 237.
- ^ The Laws of the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary, 1000–1301 (Ladislas II:7), p. 14.
- ^ Fine 1991, pp. 283–284.
- ^ a b c Curta 2006, p. 265.
- ^ a b Tanner 2010, p. 14.
- ^ Bárány 2012, p. 345.
- ^ a b c Goldstein 1999, p. 20.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 63.
- ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 34.
- ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 35.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, pp. 225–226.
- ^ Fine 1991, p. 284.
- ^ Curta 2006, pp. 266–267.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 267.
- ^ a b c Goldstein 1999, p. 21.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 266.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 36.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 355.
- ^ Makkai 1994, pp. 21–22.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 65.
- ^ Berend 2001, pp. 75, 111.
- ^ a b Nagy 2018, p. 477.
- ^ Berend 2001, p. 211.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 64.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 34, 65.
- ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, p. 405.
- ^ a b Curta 2019, p. 604.
- ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 60.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 60–61.
- ^ a b c Engel 2001, p. 57.
- ^ Laszlovszky 2018, pp. 85–86.
- ^ Laszlovszky 2018, p. 95.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 56.
- ^ Laszlovszky 2018, p. 87.
- ^ a b c d Kontler 1999, p. 73.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 115–117.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 50.
- ^ The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa by Otto of Freising and his continuator, Rahewin (1.32/31), p. 67.
- ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 51.
- ^ Fine 1991, pp. 237–238.
- ^ Berend 2001, p. 141.
- ^ Szabados, György (2022). "9–12. századi magyarok életmódjáról (About the way of life of Hungarians of the 9-12th century)".
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(help) - ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 61.
- ^ Spiesz, Caplovic & Bolchazy 2006, p. 276.
- ^ Curta 2006, pp. 352–353.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 62.
- ^ Laszlovszky 2018, pp. 96–98.
- ^ Kontler 1999, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 53.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 61.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 74.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 55.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 346.
- ^ Fine 1994, p. 7.
- ^ Molnár 2001, p. 46.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 62–63.
- ^ Nagy 2018, p. 478.
- ^ Weisz 2018, pp. 255, 262–263.
- ^ Rady 2000, p. 66.
- ^ a b c d Kontler 1999, p. 71.
- ^ a b Makkai 1994, p. 21.
- ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, p. 404.
- ^ a b Kontler 1999, p. 75.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 372.
- ^ Fine 1994, p. 61.
- ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 89.
- ^ a b c Engel 2001, p. 91.
- ^ Rady 2000, p. 34.
- ^ Berend 2001, p. 21.
- ^ a b Makkai 1994, p. 23.
- ^ a b Kontler 1999, p. 76.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 94.
- ^ a b c Kontler 1999, p. 77.
- ^ The Laws of the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary, 1000–1301 (1222:31), p. 35.
- ^ Curta 2019, p. 607.
- ^ Berend 2001, p. 121.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 96.
- ^ Berend 2001, pp. 156–157.
- ^ Berend 2001, pp. 158–159.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 97.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 89–90.
- ^ Curta 2006, pp. 387–388, 405–406.
- ^ Makkai 1994, p. 25.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 98.
- ^ Spinei 2003, p. 301.
- ^ a b c Engel 2001, p. 99.
- ^ Spinei 2003, p. 308.
- ^ Berend 2001, p. 99.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 211.
- ^ Curta 2006, pp. 409–411.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 213.
- ^ a b Spinei 2003, p. 427.
- ^ a b c d Engel 2001, p. 100.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 409.
- ^ a b c Spinei 2003, p. 439.
- ^ a b Sedlar 1994, p. 214.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 410.
- ^ Master Roger's Epistle (ch. 34), p. 201.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 413.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 101–102.
- ^ Molnár 2001, p. 34.
- ^ a b Laszlovszky & Kubinyi 2018, p. 54.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 414.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 103.
- ^ Berend 2001, pp. 242–243.
- ^ Laszlovszky & Kubinyi 2018, pp. 242–243.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 80.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 104.
- ^ a b Kontler 1999, p. 81.
- ^ Molnár 2001, p. 38.
- ^ Spinei 2003, pp. 104–105.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 105.
- ^ a b Makkai 1994, p. 33.
- ^ Spiesz, Caplovic & Bolchazy 2006, p. 49.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 113.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 272.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 111.
- ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 112.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 112–113.
- ^ Spiesz, Caplovic & Bolchazy 2006, p. 34.
- ^ Nagy 2018, pp. 479–480.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 377.
- ^ Kontler 1999, pp. 81–82.
- ^ Fine 1994, pp. 171–175.
- ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 106.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 120.
- ^ Rady 2000, pp. 91–93.
- ^ Rady 2000, pp. 79, 84, 91–93.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 120–121.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 122.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 121.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 276.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 107–108.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 108.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 108–109.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, pp. 406–407.
- ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 109.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 219.
- ^ Makkai 1994, p. 31.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 163.
- ^ a b c Engel 2001, p. 110.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 33.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 39.
- ^ a b c d e f Kontler 1999, p. 84.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 286.
- ^ Kirschbaum 1996, p. 45.
- ^ a b c Kontler 1999, p. 87.
- ^ Spiesz, Caplovic & Bolchazy 2006, p. 50.
- ^ a b c d Engel 2001, p. 129.
- ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 130.
- ^ Molnár 2001, p. 43.
- ^ Molnár 2001, p. 45.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 91.
Sources
Primary sources
- Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians (Edited, Translated and Annotated by Martyn Rady and László Veszprémy) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010); Anonymus and Master Roger; CEU Press; ISBN 978-963-9776-95-1.
- Master Roger's Epistle to the Sorrowful Lament upon the Destruction of the Kingdom of Hungary by the Tatars (Translated and Annotated by János M. Bak and Martyn Rady) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010); Anonymus and Master Roger; CEU Press; ISBN 978-963-9776-95-1.
- The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa by Otto of Freising and his continuator, Rahewin (Translated and annotated with an introduction by Charles Christopher Mierow, with the collaboration of Richard Emery) (1953). Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-13419-3.
- The Laws of the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary, 1000–1301 (Translated and Edited by János M. Bak, György Bónis, James Ross Sweeney with an essay on previous editions by Andor Czizmadia, Second revised edition, In collaboration with Leslie S. Domonkos) (1999). Charles Schlacks, Jr. Publishers.
Secondary sources
- Bak, János M. (1993). ""Linguistic pluralism" in Medieval Hungary". In Meyer, Marc A. (ed.). The Culture of Christendom: Essays in Medieval History in Memory of Denis L. T. Bethel. ISBN 1-85285-064-7.
- Bárány, Attila (2012). "The Expansion of the Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages (1000–1490)". In Berend, Nóra (ed.). The Expansion of Central Europe in the Middle Ages. The Expansion of Latin Europe, 1000–1500. Vol. 5. ISBN 978-1-4094-2245-7.
- ISBN 978-0-521-02720-5.
- ISBN 978-0-521-78156-5.
- ISBN 978-0-521-89452-4.
- ISBN 978-90-04-41534-8.
- ISBN 1-86064-061-3.
- ISBN 0-472-08149-7.
- ISBN 0-472-08260-4.
- ISBN 978-0-7735-2017-2.
- Kirschbaum, Stanislav J. (1996). A History of Slovakia: The Struggle for Survival. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-6929-9.
- Kontler, László (1999). Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary. Atlantisz Publishing House. ISBN 963-9165-37-9.
- Laszlovszky, József; Kubinyi, András (2018). "Demographic issues in late medieval Hungary: population, ethnic groups, economic activity". In Laszlovszky, József; Nagy, Balázs; Szabó, Péter; Vadai, András (eds.). The Economy of Medieval Hungary. East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450–1450. ISBN 978-90-04-31015-5.
- Laszlovszky, József (2018). "Agriculture in Medieval Hungary". In Laszlovszky, József; Nagy, Balázs; Szabó, Péter; Vadai, András (eds.). The Economy of Medieval Hungary. East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450–1450. ISBN 978-90-04-31015-5.
- Makkai, László (1994). "The Hungarians' prehistory, their conquest of Hungary and their raids to the West to 955; The foundation of the Hungarian Christian state, 950–1196; Transformation into a Western-type state, 1196–1301". In Sugár, Peter F.; Hanák, Péter; Frank, Tibor (eds.). A History of Hungary. ISBN 0-253-20867-X.
- Molnár, Miklós (2001). A Concise History of Hungary. Cambridge Concise Histories. Translated by Anna Magyar. ISBN 978-0-521-66736-4.
- Nagy, Balázs (2018). "Foreign Trade in Medieval Hungary". In Laszlovszky, József; Nagy, Balázs; Szabó, Péter; Vadai, András (eds.). The Economy of Medieval Hungary. East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450–1450. ISBN 978-90-04-31015-5.
- ISBN 0-333-80085-0.
- Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500. A History of East Central Europe. Vol. III. ISBN 0-295-97290-4.
- Spiesz, Anton; ISBN 978-0-86516-426-0.
- ISBN 973-85894-5-2.
- Tanner, Marcus (2010). Croatia: A Nation Forged in War. ISBN 978-0-300-16394-0.
- Weisz, Boglárka (2018). "Royal revenues in the Árpádian Age". In Laszlovszky, József; Nagy, Balázs; Szabó, Péter; Vadai, András (eds.). The Economy of Medieval Hungary. East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450–1450. ISBN 978-90-04-31015-5.
Further reading
- Kings and Saints - The Age of the Árpáds (PDF). Budapest, Székesfehérvár: Institute of Hungarian Research. 2022. ISBN 978-615-6117-65-6.
- Sághy, Marianne (2001). "The making of the Christian kingdom in Hungary". In Urbańczyk, Przemysław (ed.). Europe around the Year 1000. Wydawnictwo DIG. pp. 451–464. ISBN 83-7181-211-6.
External links
- Jékely, Zsombor (7 October 2011). "Art in Medieval Hungary". Zsombor Jékely. Retrieved 15 March 2016.