South Malabar
South Malabar | |
---|---|
Geographical / Historical Area | |
Top to bottom: UTC+5:30 (IST) | |
PIN | 673***, 676***, 678***, 679*** and 680*** |
ISO 3166 code | IN-KL |
Vehicle registration | KL-08, KL-09, KL-10, KL-11, KL-46, KL-49, KL-50, KL-51, KL-52, KL-53, KL-54, KL-55, KL-57, KL-65, KL-71, KL-75, KL-76, KL-77, KL-84 & KL-85 |
Niyamasabha constituencies | 36[2] |
South Malabar refers to a geographical area of the southwestern coast of India covering some parts of the present-day Kerala state. South Malabar covers the regions included in present-day Kozhikode taluk of Kozhikode district, the whole area of Malappuram district, Chavakkad taluk of Thrissur district, and Palakkad district, excluding parts of Chittur taluk. The Fort Kochi region of Kochi city also historically belongs to South Malabar. The term South Malabar refers to the region of the erstwhile Malabar District south to the river Korapuzha, and bears a high cultural similarity to both the Cochin (Southern Thrissur region) and the North Malabar regions.[3]
Under
Etymology
Until the arrival of British, the term Malabar was used in foreign trade circles as a general name for Kerala.[7] Earlier, the term Malabar had been used to also include Tulu Nadu and Kanyakumari, which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India.[8][9] The people of Malabar were known as Malabars. The term Malabar is still often used to denote the entire southwestern coast of India.
In the 6th century, Arab sailors called Kerala as Male. The first element of the name, however, was already attested in Cosmas Indicopleustes' Topography, which mentions a pepper emporium called "Male", which clearly gave its name to Malabar (lit. 'the country of Male'). The name Malabar is thought to come from the Dravidian word mala (lit. 'hill')[10][11] and the Persian word barr (lit. 'country/continent').[7][12]
Historically, Arab writers variously called this place Malibar, Manibar, Mulibar, and Munibar. Al-Biruni (973–1048) must have been the first writer to call this state Malabar.[7] Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works.[13]
History
Ancient era
The ancient port of
Early Middle Ages
During the early Middle Ages, South Malabar was home to numerous political realms, including the kingdoms of Cochin, Parappanad, Vettathunadu (Tanur), Valluvanad, Nilambur, Nedungadi, and Palakkad.
The Kurumathur inscription found near Areekode dates back to 871 CE.[23] Three inscriptions written in Old Malayalam dating from 932 CE were found in Triprangode (near Tirunavaya), Kottakkal, and Chaliyar, and mention the name of Goda Ravi of the Chera dynasty.[24] Of these, the Triprangode inscription describes the agreement of Thavanur.[24]
Several inscriptions written in Old Malayalam dating from the 10th century have found in Sukapuram near Edappal, which was one of the 64 old Nambudiri villages of Kerala. Descriptions about the rulers of the Eranad and Valluvanad regions can be seen in the Jewish copper plates of Bhaskara Ravi Varman (around 1000 CE) and Viraraghava copper plates of Veera Raghava Chakravarthy (around 1225 CE).[25] At the Muchundi Mosque in Kozhikode, a 13th-century granite inscription written in a mixture of Old Malayalam and Arabic mentions a donation by the king to the mosque.[26]
Rise of Kozhikode
The Zamorin of Kozhikode (Calicut) was the most powerful ruler of South Malabar during the Middle Ages. Under its rule, Kozhikode was the largest city on Malabar Coast, and South Malabar emerged as one of the leading centres of maritime trade on the Indian subcontinent. This continued until the 18th century. The port at Kozhikode was the gateway to the South Indian coast for Arabs, who had a monopoly on foreign trade, and later the Portuguese, Dutch, and British.[27]
The Zamorin, who originally ruled
At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam (
The Portuguese arrived at Kappad, Kozhikode, in 1498 during the Age of Discovery, thus opening a direct sea route from Europe to South Asia.[35] The Kunjali Marakkars, who were the naval chiefs of the Zamorin of Kozhikode, are credited with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast.[36] In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar, making it the first municipality on the Indian subcontinent; it was later dissolved when Dutch authority weakened in the 18th century.[37] Under British Raj, Kozhikode acted as the headquarters of Malabar District; the port held the superior economic and political position in medieval Kerala coast, while Kannur, Kollam, and Kochi were commercially important secondary ports, where the traders from various parts of the world would gather.[38]
South Malabar was the cultural capital of medieval Kerala. The region was and still is the main hub of Malayalam literature. Tirunavaya, the hub of the Mamankam festival, and Ponnani, the largest hub of Islamic studies in Kerala during the Middle Ages, were located in South Malabar. The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries and was based in the Kingdom of Tanur.[39] In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, including series expansion for trigonometric functions.[39][40]
Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, the feudal lords of Athavanad who were considered the supreme head of Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala during the Middle Ages, were also natives of South Malabar.[41] Additionally, South Malabar was home to the prominent figures like Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, Poonthanam Nambudiri, Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri, Kunchan Nambiar, and Zainuddin Makhdoom II.[3]
Colonial period
The northern parts of Kerala were unified under
Initially, Malabar was placed under the
Royal families
The Parappanad royal family is a cousin dynasty of the Travancore royal family. Marthanda Varma, the founder of Travancore, belonged to the Parappanad royal family.
Lakshmipuram Palace
Lakshmipuram Palace is the royal palace of the Parappanad royal families in Changanassery. It was built in 1811 during the reign of Maharani Ayilyom Thirunal Gouri Lakshmi Bayi (1791–1815) and served as a new palace for her husband Raja Raja Varma Koil Thampuran and his family members.[42][43][44][45]
Raja Raja Varma Koil Thampuran was born in Neerazhi Palace in the Puzhavathu neighborhood of Changanassery, near Kavil Bhagavathy Temple.[46] He was part of the Parappanad royal family[47] who ruled Parappanangadi.[48] He was the father of Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma, Maharaja of Travancore.
Kilimanoor palace
In 1705 (
In 1740, when an allied force[50] led by Dutchman Captain Hockert supporting the Deshinganadu King, attacked Venad, an army from Kilimanoor resisted and then defeated them. Although a small victory, this was the first time an Indian army had defeated a European power. In 1753, in recognition of this feat, Marthanda Varma exempted the areas controlled by the Kilimanoor palace[51] from taxes and granted them autonomy.[52] The present palace complex was built at this time, together with the Ayyappan temple[53] for the family deity, Sastha or Ayyapan.[54]
Nedumpuram Palace near Thiruvalla belongs to Valluvanad royal family.
Geography
The term 'South Malabar' refers to the region of the erstwhile Malabar District that lies south of the river Korapuzha and bears high cultural similarity with both the Central Kerala (Southern Thrissur region) and the North Malabar region.[3]
Three of the largest five rivers in Kerala—the Bharathappuzha, Chaliyar, and Kadalundi—flow through South Malabar. The region also has several small and medium-sized tributaries, such as the Bhavani River, a tributary of the Kaveri. Dams have been built across tributaries of the Bharathappuzha River, the largest by dimension being the Malampuzha Dam and the largest by volume being the Parambikulam Dam.[55] The Biyyam backwaters, canals such as the Conolly Canal, and the Ponnani Kole Wetlands are also present in South Malabar region.
The Palakkad Gap, the largest mountain pass in Kerala's Western Ghats and that connects Kerala with Tamil Nadu by road through Coimbatore city, is located in South Malabar. The region is therefore also known as "The Gateway of Kerala".
The highest peaks in the Malabar District were in the Nilambur (eastern) region of Eranad, near the Nilgiri Mountains.[3] The 2,554 m (8,379 ft)-high Mukurthi peak, which is situated in the border of modern-day Nilambur Taluk and Ooty Taluk, was the highest point of elevation in Malabar District; today, it is the fifth-highest peak in South India and the third-highest in Kerala after Anamudi (2,696 m) and Meesapulimala (2,651 m). It is also the highest peak in Kerala outside the Idukki district. Anginda peak (2,383 m) was the second-highest peak in the district, and Vavul Mala (2,339 m) was the third-highest.[3] Apart from the main continuous range of the Western Ghats, the region has many small undulating hills in the lowland.[3]
South Malabar has rich biodiversity. It is home to the
In the British records, the eastern Eranad region was collectively described as "Nilambur Valley".[57] The riverbank of the Chaliyar in Nilambur is known for natural gold fields.[56] Mineral explorations done in the Chaliyar river valley showed reserves of the order of 2.5 million cubic meters of placers with 0.1 gram per cubic meter of gold.[58] Eranad has several tributaries of Chaliyar and Kadalundi rivers.
-
Bharathappuzha, the second-longest river in Kerala
-
Chaliyar, the fourth-longest river in Kerala
-
Typical Palakkadan paddy field (from Nemmara)
-
Kadalundi River, the fifth-longest river in Kerala
Transportation
Roads
Kozhikode
Buses, predominantly run by individual owners, ply routes within the city and nearby locations. City buses are painted green. Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) runs regular services to many destinations in the state and to neighbouring states. The city has three bus stands: private buses to the suburbs and nearby towns depart from the Palayam Bus Stand; private buses to adjoining districts depart from the Mofussil Bus Stand on Indira Gandhi Road (Mavoor Road); KSRTC buses depart from the KSRTC bus stand on Indira Gandhi Road, the largest bus stand in Kerala.[59] There are also KSRTC depots in Thamarassery, Thottilpalam, Thiruvambady, and Vatakara.
Private tour operators maintain regular luxury bus services to
, and mainly operate from the Palayam area. These are usually night services.Malappuram
Malappuram is well-connected by roads. There are four
The first modern road in the district was laid in the 18th century by Tipu Sultan.[64] The road from Tirur to Chaliyam via Tanur, Parappanangadi, and Vallikkunnu was projected by him.[64] Tipu had also projected the roads from Malappuram to Thamarassery, from Malappuram to Western Ghats, from Feroke to Kottakkal via Tirurangadi, and from Kottakkal to Angadipuram.[65]
Palakkad
Palakkad has four bus stations: the
Railways
Kozhikode
Kozhikode railway station, also known as Calicut railway station, is the largest railway station in the city. At ₹98 crore (equivalent to ₹131 crore or US$16 million in 2023) in revenue in 2018, it is the third largest in terms of passenger revenues in Kerala, the largest in Palakkad division, and the seventh largest in Southern Railway.[68] The station has four platforms, two terminals, and a total of six tracks.[69] It is a major railway stations in Kerala, with trains connecting the city to other major cities in India.
An integrated security system was installed at the station in 2012, featuring baggage scanners, CCTVs, and vehicle scanners.[70] The 125th anniversary of the station was celebrated on 2 January 2013.[71]
The railway line to Calicut (now Kozhikode) was opened to traffic on 2 January 1888, and at that time was western terminus of the Madras Railway. The first line in Malabar was laid between Chaliyam (at the time an important port) and Tirur. With the arrival of the new line to Calicut and its growth as an administrative centre, Chaliyam diminished in significance and the railway line to it was subsequently abandoned.[72]
The other railway stations in Kozhikode include Ferok (code: FK), Kallayi Kozhikode South (code: KUL), Vellayil (code: VLL) and West Hill (code: WH).
Malappuram
The
The history of railways in Kerala traces back to this district. The oldest railway station in the state is at Tirur.[64] The stations at Tanur, Parappanangadi, and Vallikkunnu also form parts of the oldest railway line in the state laid from Tirur to Chaliyam.[64] The line was inaugurated on 12 March 1861.[74] In the same year, it was extended from Tirur to Kuttippuram via Tirunavaya.[64] In 1862, it was further extended from Kuttippuram to Pattambi, and then from Pattambi to Podanur.[64] The current Chennai–Mangalore railway line was later formed as an extension of this Beypore–Podanur line.[64]
The
The Nilambur–Nanjangud line is a proposed railway line connecting Nilambur with Mysore.[76][77] Guruvayur–Tirunavaya railway line is another proposed project.[78] The Ministry of Railways included a railway line connecting Kozhikode–Malappuram–Angadipuram in its Vision 2020 plan. Multiple surveys have been done on the line already.
Angadipuram | Cherukara | Kuttippuram |
Melattur | Nilambur Road | Parappanangadi |
Pattikkad | Perassannur | Tanur |
Thodikapulam | Tirunavaya | Tirur |
Tuvvur | Vallikkunnu | Vaniyambalam |
Palakkad
The Palakkad railway division, the smallest of the six administrative divisions of the Southern Railway zone of Indian Railways, is headquartered in the city of Palakkad and manages 588 kilometers of track. It is one of the oldest railway divisions in India.
The terminal facility of the Palakkad division is in Shoranur Junction and Mangalore Central of
Airport
Kozhikode and Malappuram
Kozhikode and Malappuram are served by the
According to statistics provided by the
Palakkad
The nearest international airport is
In 2011, there was a proposal by the civil aviation ministry of India for a mini domestic airport at East Yakkara to enhance air connectivity. 60 acres were identified for the project at East Yakkara Palakkad.[81]
Economy
Kozhikode
Kozhikode (Calicut) is the largest economic hub is South Malabar as well as the whole Malabar region. Nedungadi Bank, the first and oldest bank in the modern state of Kerala, was established by Appu Nedungadi at Kozhikode in the year 1899.[82] Service sector dominates the economy, followed by industries.
In 2012, Kozhikode was given the tag of "City of Sculptures" ("Shilpa Nagaram") because of the architectural sculptures around the city.[85][86]
Shopping
The city has a strong mercantile aspect. The main area of business was once Valiyangadi ("Big Bazaar") near the railway station, but has since shifted to other parts of the city. The commercial heart has moved to Mittai Theruvu (Sweetmeat Street, or S. M. Street), a long street crammed with shops that sell everything from saris to cosmetics. It also houses restaurants and sweetmeat shops. Today, the city has multiple shopping malls, including Focus Mall (first mall of Kerala), HiLITE Mall,[87] Address Mall, and RP Mall.[88]
Malappuram
The gross district value added (GDVA) of Malappuram in the fiscal year 2018–19 was estimated as ₹ 698.37 billion, with a growth of 11.30% compared to the previous year. The district ranks third in GDVA among the districts of Kerala, after Ernakulam and Thiruvananthapuram, as of 2018–19.[89] The growth rate of GDVA showed a zigzag trend between 2012 and 2017. The per capita GDVA was calculated as ₹ 154,463. The net district value added (NDVA) of the district in 2018–19 was ₹ 631.90 billion, and the annual growth rate was 11.59%. [89]
The economy of Malappuram significantly depends upon emigrants. Malappuram has the most emigrants in the state. According to the 2016 economic review report published by the Government of Kerala, every 54 per 100 households in the district are emigrant households.[90] Most of them work in the Middle East.
The headquarters of Kerala Gramin Bank is situated at Malappuram.[91]
The Kodakkal Tile Factory was run by the Commonwealth Trust at Kodakkal, Tirunavaya, and started in 1887. It is the second tile-manufacturing industry in India. (The first tile factory was at Feroke, which was a part of the then Eranad Taluk.)
Palakkad
The presence of Palakkad Gap and proximity to Coimbatore make Palakkad economically important. Palakkad City is one of the largest industrial hubs in Kerala. The Kanjikode area of Palakkad is the second-largest industrial hub of Kerala after Kochi, and home to production facilities for companies like Indian Telephone Industries Limited (ITI), Instrumentation Limited, Fluid Control Research Institute, Saint-Gobain India Private Limited, Patspin India Ltd, Pepsi, PPS steel (Kerala) Pvt Ltd, United breweries, Empee Distilleries, Marico, BEML, Rubfila International Ltd, and Arya Vaidya Pharmacy.
The commercialization of Palakkad City has experienced steady economic growth in recent years.[as of?] The developments are mainly concentrated on the bypass roads, and include housing develops, shopping centres, hotels, and restaurants.
Education
Kozhikode
There are 1,237 schools in Kozhikode district, including 191 high schools.[92]
Kozhikode is home to two premier educational institutions of national importance: the Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode, and the National Institute of Technology Calicut. Other institutions include the National Institute for Research and Development in Defence Shipbuilding,[93] Indian Institute of Spices Research,[94] and National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology.[95]
Recently, Kozhikode got Kerala's first residential International Baccalaureate continuum school, The White School International. It is located in Perumanna and was established in 2016.
The
In 1877, a school for young Rajas was started in Kozhikode. This was later opened to Hindu boys of all castes. In 1879, it was affiliated with the University of Madras as a second-grade college, bolstering collegiate education in the district. Secondary education has recorded appreciable progress since 1915. The erstwhile Malabar District (of which the present-day Kozhikode district formed a part) holds a high rank among the districts of the Madras Presidency in secondary education.[97]
Malappuram
The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, including series expansion for trigonometric functions.[39][98] The school was based in Vettathunadu (Tirur region).[39]
The Malappuram district has 1,620 schools,[99] the most in Kerala as per the school statistics of 2019–20. There are 898 lower primary schools,[100] 363 upper primary schools,[101] 355 high schools,[102] 248 higher secondary schools,[103] and 27 vocational higher secondary schools[104] in the district. Besides these, there are 120 CBSE schools and 3 ICSE schools.
554 government schools, 810 aided schools, and 1 unaided school recognised by the Government of Kerala have been digitalised.[105][further explanation needed] In the academic year 2019–20, the total number of students studying in the schools recognised by Government of Kerala was 739,966; this was composed of 407,690 in aided schools; 245,445 in government schools; and 86,831 in the recognised unaided schools.[106]
This district plays a significant role in the higher education sector of the state. It is home to two of the main universities in the state: the
Palakkad
Palakkad city is home to the only
Media
Kozhikode
Radio
The Kozhikode radio station of
Television
Since 3 July 1984, a television transmitter has relayed programmes from
Satellite television services are available through
The Calicut Press Club was established in 1970 as the centre of all regional media activities, both print and electronic. Beginning with around 70 members, this Press Club became a prestigious and alert media centre in the state, with a present membership of over 280.
Malappuram
The
Almost all Malayalam channels and newspapers, as well as the Malappuram Press Club, have their bureau at Up Hill, adjacent to Municipal Town Hall. Doordarshan has two major relay stations in the district: one at Malappuram and one at Manjeri. The government of India's Prasar Bharati National Public Service Broadcaster has an FM station in the district (AIR Manjeri FM), broadcasting on 102.7 Mhz. Despite lacking private FM stations, Malappuram, Ponnani, and Tirur are among the top ten towns with the highest radio listenership in India.[120]
Palakkad
Major Malayalam newspapers
Culture
Kozhikode
Malayalam language
Kozhikode district has made significant contributions to
An intellectual debate is held for Vedic scholars, wherein winners receive the title of "Pattathanam". This debate takes place at the Thali Temple during the month of Thulam.
Many prominent writers of Malayalam literature hail from Kozhikode. Among them are
Music
In addition to the Malabar Mahotsavam, the annual cultural fest of Kozhikode,[122] the Tyagaraja Aradhana Trust has conducted a five-day music festival in honour of Tyagaraja every year since 1981. The festival is complete with the Uncchavritti, rendering of Divyanama Kritis and Pancharatna Kritis, and concerts by professional and student musicians throughout the day.[123]
Kozhikode has a tradition of ghazal and Hindustani music appreciation. There are many Malayalam ghazals. The late film director and singer M. S. Baburaj, from Kozhikode, was influenced by ghazal and Hindustani music traditions.[124]
Hindi songs are popular in this city. The Mohammed Rafi Foundation organises musical events on the anniversaries of the birth (on 24 December) and death of legendary singer Mohammed Rafi. These events are estimated to be the largest such "Rafi Nite" gatherings anywhere in India.[125]
Films
The film history of Kozhikode dates back to the 1950s. Some of the main production companies of Malayalam films—like Grihalakshmi productions, Kalpaka, and Swargachithra—are Kozhikode based companies. The city was also an important centre for filmmakers like
The 1947 Douglas Fairbanks Jr. Hollywood thriller, Sinbad the Sailor, mentions Kozhikode.
As the largest city in the Malabar region, Kozhikode also has a vital role in the entertainment segment. The city's first theatre, Calicut Crown, was opened as early as 1925. The city has more than 10 theatres and two multiplexes, the PVS Film City (the first multiplex in Malabar), and the Crown Theatre.[126]
Sports
Kozhikode is known as the "second Mecca" of
Other popular games in Kozhikode include cricket,[128] basketball, badminton, and volleyball.
P. T. Usha is a famous Kozhikode athlete who is regarded as one of the greatest athletes India has ever produced; she is often called the "queen of Indian track and field". Currently, she runs the Usha School of Athletics at Koyilandy in Kerala. Other sports personalities include Jimmy George, Tom Joseph, and Premnath Phillips. Jaseel P. Ismail, V. Diju, Aparna Balan, and Arun Vishnu are international badminton players from the city.
The Sports & Education Promotion Trust (SEPT) was established to promote sports development in India, with a focus on football. Started in 2004 and based in Kozhikode, the trust has set up 52 centres called "football nurseries" spread across thirteen districts in Kerala.[129]
Since 2010, the Calicut Mini Marathon has been organised by IIM Kozhikode, with a participation of around 7,000 people every year.
Malappuram
The
Additional renowned writers of Malayalam include Achyutha Pisharadi, Alamkode Leelakrishnan, Edasseri Govindan Nair, K. P. Ramanunni, Kuttikrishna Marar, Kuttippuram Kesavan Nair, Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri, N. Damodaran, Nandanar, Poonthanam Nambudiri, Pulikkottil Hyder, Uroob, V. C. Balakrishna Panicker, Vallathol Gopala Menon, and Vallathol Narayana Menon, all of whom were natives of the district.[41] Writers M. Govindan, M. T. Vasudevan Nair, and Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri hailed from Ponnani Kalari based at Ponnani.[41] Nalapat Narayana Menon, Balamani Amma, V. T. Bhattathiripad, and Kamala Surayya also hail from the erstwhile Ponnani Taluk.
Malappuram was the main centre of
The district has also contributed to
The district has also contributed to traditional ayurveda medicine.[41] Arya Vaidya Sala at Kottakkal is one of the largest ayurvedic medicinal networks in the world.[41]
The
Ponnani's trade relations with foreign countries since ancient times paved the way for a cultural exchange.[41] Persian–Arab art forms and North Indian culture came to Ponnani via this trade. This was also the origin of the hybrid language Arabi Malayalam, which has been used in the composition of some regional poetry.[41] The language's script (also known as Ponnani script) was created during the late 16th century and early 17th century.[41] The script was widely used in the district during the last centuries.[41] Hindustani qawwali and ghazals, which came here as part of the cultural exchange, still thrive in Ponnani. EK Aboobacker, Main, and Khalil Bhai (Khalil Rahman) are some of the famous qawwali singers of Ponnani.
The original headquarters of the Palakkad Rajas were at Athavanad.[28] Several aristocratic Nambudiri Manas are present in the Tirur, Perinthalmanna, and Ponnani taluks. Tirunavaya, the seat of the medieval Mamankam festival, is also present in the district. E. M. S. Namboodiripad, the first Chief Minister of Kerala, hails from Perinthalmanna in the district.[41]
During the medieval period, the district was a centre of
Playwrights and actors from the district include
Sports
Malappuram is often known as "The Mecca of Kerala Football",
Malabar Premier League was initiated in 2015 to strengthen football in the district.[137] The Calicut University Synthetic Track at Tenhipalam is the apex synthetic track in the district, and is associated with the C. H. Muhammad Koya Stadium.[138] Other major stadiums include those at Areekode, Kottakkal, and Ponnani. A football hub to internationalise the eight major football stadiums of district is proposed.[139] Two new stadium complexes in Tanur and Nilambur are under construction.[140]
Palakkad
Palakkad district has produced several notable poets, playback singers, and actors. The Thrithala–Pattambi region can be described as the cultural capital of the district.
Sports
The Indira Gandhi Municipal Stadium in the center of Palakkad city, once used for major sport events, has fallen into disrepair due to the lack of maintenance; however, the municipality has proposed a renovation of the stadium with international facilities.[141] Fort Maidan,[142] a multi-use stadium in Palakkad, is mainly used for cricket matches. In 2003, the Ranji Trophy was introduced in Fort Maidan. The city has an indoor stadium[143] located near Government Victoria College, Palakkad, with an eight-lane synthetic track.[144]
Malabar cuisine
Centuries of maritime trade has given South Malabar a cosmopolitan cuisine that combines traditional
The
Another specialty is
Kozhikode is also famous for haluva, called "sweet meat" by Europeans due to the texture of the sweet. A main road in Kozhikode is named "Mittai Theruvu" ("Sweet Meat Street"), so named for the numerous halwa stores which used to dot it.
However, newer generations are more inclined towards Chinese and American food. Chinese food is very popular among the locals.
Tourism
Kozhikode
- Kozhikode Beach
- Mananchira – man-made freshwater pond park in the city centre
- S. M. Street (Mittayitheruvu) a famous shopping street and pedestrian zone
- Kakkayam Valley – dam site located at Koorachundu in Kozhikode, on the outskirts of the Western Ghats and Malabar Wildlife Sanctuary, home to wild animals including elephants and bison
- Sarovaram Bio Park – eco-friendly development near Kottooly, located in an ecosystem consisting of wetlands and mangrove forests containing bird habitat
- Planetarium
- Mishkal Mosque – one of the few surviving medieval mosques in Kerala, and regarded as an important cultural, historical, and architectural monument
- Kappad Beach – beach and village near Koyilandy where Vasco da Gama landed
- Thusharagiri Falls
- Chaliyam harbour – village on an island in the estuary of Chaliyar (River Beypore), bounded by the Conolly Canal in the east
- Kakkadampoyil – small village that has recently emerged as a major tourist destination in the district
- Aripara Falls
- Thamarassery Churam – mountain pass in Kerala; part of the National Highway 766
- Beypore – ancient port town with a beach and floating bridge
- Urumi Dam – small diversion dam constructed across Poyilingalpuzha
- Vayalada – hilly area home to Wayalada view point
- Tali Shiva Temple – 14th-century Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva built by the Zamorin
- Chaliyar River– fourth-longest river in Kerala
- Iruvazhanjippuzha – major tributary of Chaliyar River
- Kadalundi – coastal village famous for its bird sanctuary
- Nambikulam – eco-tourism village
- Thonikadavu – tourist destination called the "Switzerland of Kerala"[citation needed]
-
Thusharagiri
-
Kappad Beach
Malappuram
- Adyanpara Falls[151]
- Anginda peak
- Arimbra Hills (also known as "Mini-Ooty")[152]
- Arya Vaidya Sala – health centre known for its heritage and expertise in the Indian traditional medicine system of ayurveda
- Ayyapanov Waterfalls
- Bharathappuzha – second-longest river in Kerala, also known as the Ponnani, Nila, and Perar river[153]
- Biyyam Kayal – backwater lake at Ponnani[154]
- Chaliyar – fourth-longest river in Kerala. Conolly's plot, the world's oldest teak plantation, is adjacent to the river
- Chamravattom Regulator-cum-Bridge – largest regulator-cum bridge of Kerala; connects Tirur Taluk with Ponnani port[155]
- Chekkunnu Mala – a misty green hill near to Chaliyar at Edavanna[156]
- Cherumb eco-tourist village (Karuvarakundu)[157]
- Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary – home to more than a hundred species of native birds and over 60 species of migratory birds[158]
- Kadalundi–Vallikkunnu community reserve – first community reserve in Kerala and an eco-tourism spot[159]
- Kakkadampoyil – hilly village on the bank of Cherupuzha
- Keralamkundu waterfalls (Karuvarakundu)[160]
- Kollam Kolli Waterfalls
- Kottakkunnu ("The Marine Drive of Malappuram") – site of an old fort, water park, and ancient murals in the middle of Malappuram city[161]
- Kuttippuram bridge – One of the largest and oldest bridges built over the river Bharathappuzha
- Mukurthi – fifth-highest peak in South India
- Nadukani Churam – a Ghat Road that connects Malappuram district with the hilly district of Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu[62]
- Nedumkayam Rainforest – part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve[162]
- New Amarambalam Reserved Forest – wildlife sanctuary near Nilambur[163]
- Nilambur Kovilakam – headquarters of the Nilambur royal family[164]
- Nilambur–Shoranur line – one of the shortest broad-gauge railway lines in India
- Noor Lake
- Oorakam Hill
- Poorappuzha River – scenic coastal tributary of the Kadalundi River
- Padinjarekara Azhimukham beach – the Tirur River and Bharathappuzha rivers join the Arabian Sea here;[165] the estuary is a centre for migratory birds
- Paloor Kotta Falls
- Perinthalmanna[166]
- Parappanangadi beach (Parappanangadi)
- Paravanna beach (Vettom)
- Ponnani beach
- Poonathanam Illam – birthplace of 16th-century Malayalam poet Poonthanam Nambudiri near Perinthalmanna[167]
- Poorappuzha Azhimukham – an estuary at Tanur
- Silent Valley National Park
- Tanur beach
- Teak Museum – world's first teak plantation[168]
- Thunchan Parambu – birthplace of Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, who is known as the father of modern Malayalam language
- Tirur River
- Unity hill viewpoint (Manjeri)
- Unniyal beach (Niramarutur)
- Vakkad beach[169]
- Vallikunnu beach[170]
- Vavul Mala – mountain range near Chungathara
-
Noor Lake, Tirur
-
NedumkayamReserved Forest near Nilambur
Palakkad
- Attappadi Reserve Forest
- Dhoni Waterfalls
- Elivai Mala
- Fantasy Park
- Kanjirapuzha Dam
- Kannimara Teak[171]
- Karimpuzha Kovilakam
- Kollengode Palace
- Malampuzha Dam
- Malampuzha Garden
- Mampara peak (Raja's cliff)
- Mangalam Dam
- Meenvallam Waterfalls
- Meenkara Dam
- Nelliampathi hillstation
- Palakkad Fort
- Parambikulam Dam
- Parambikulam Tiger Reserve
- Pothundi Dam
- Silent Valley National Park
- Siruvani Dam
- Siruvani Waterfalls
- Varikkasseri Mana
- Walayar Dam
Silent Valley National Park
This national park is located in the rich biodiversity of
originate in the vicinity of Silent Valley.Notable people
Kozhikode
Literature
- S. K. Pottekkatt
- Thikkodiyan
- Punathil Kunjabdulla
- U. A. Khader
- Akbar Kakkattil
- N. N. Kakkad
- P. Valsala
- M. N. Karassery
Music
- M. S. Baburaj
- Baburaj
- Gireesh Puthenchery
Film
- I. V. Sasi
- T. Damodaran
- Ummer
- Mammukoya
- Balan K. Nair
- Santha Devi
- Parvathy Thiruvothu
- Kuthiravattam Pappu
- Ranjith
- V. M. Vinu
- A. Vincent
- Shajoon Kariyal
- Anjali Menon
- P. S. Nivas
- Neeraj Madhav
- Madhupal
- Anoop Menon
- Nellikode Bhaskaran
- Augustine
Sports
Malappuram
- A. Vijayaraghavan – former member of Rajya Sabha and the state secretary of CPI(M)
- A. P. Anil Kumar – former minister of Kerala
- A. R. Raja Raja Varma – Malayalam poet and grammatician
- Abdul Nediyodath– professional footballer
- Abdurahiman Randathani – politician
- Achyutha Pisharadi – Sanskrit grammarian, astronomer, and mathematician
- Adil Ibrahim – actor
- Ahmad Kutty – North American Islamic scholar
- Ajijesh Pachat – Malayalam novelist, short story writer, and columnist
- Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri – Malayalam poet and essayist
- Akkitham Narayanan – painter
- Ali Musliyar – freedom activist
- Ammu Swaminathan – independence activist and a member of Constituent Assembly of India
- Anas Edathodika – professional footballer
- Aneesh G. Menon – actor
- Anikha– actress
- Aparna Nair – actress
- Arjun Jayaraj – professional footballer
- Artist Namboothiri – painter
- Aryadan Muhammed – former minister of Kerala
- Aryadan Shoukath – film producer
- Ashique Kuruniyan – professional footballer
- Asif Saheer – professional footballer
- Azad Moopen – doctor and philanthropist[172][173][174]
- B. M. Kutty – journalist and activist
- Balamani Amma – writer of Malayalam literature
- C. Karunakara Menon – journalist and politician
- C. Radhakrishnan – writer and film director
- C. N. Ahmad Moulavi – writer of Malayalam literature
- Chakkeeri Ahemed Kutty – former minister of Kerala and former speaker of Kerala Legislative Assembly
- Chalilakath Kunahmed Haji – social reformer[175]
- Cherukad Govinda Pisharody – Malayalam playwright, novelist, poet, and political activist
- Damodara – astronomer and mathematician
- Deepu Pradeep – scriptwriter
- cricketer
- Dhanish Karthik – actor
- Dileep K. Nair – educationist, skill development campaigner, social activist, and publisher
- E. Harikumar – Malayalam novelist and short story writer
- Indian freedom fighter and Islamic scholar[176]
- E. Sreedharan – Metroman of India
- E. K. Imbichi Bava – politician
- E. M. S. Namboodiripad – first Chief Minister of Kerala and the founder of CPI(M)[177]
- E. T. Mohammed Basheer – former minister of Kerala and member of Lok Sabha
- Edasseri Govindan Nair – poet
- Elamaram Kareem – former minister of Kerala and member of Rajya Sabha
- Faisal Kutty – lawyer, academic, writer, public speaker, and human rights activist[178]
- Govinda Bhattathiri – astrologer and astronomer
- Hari Nair – cinematographer
- Hemanth Menon – actor
- Indrajith Sukumaran – film actor and playback singer
- Iqbal Kuttippuram – screenwriter and homoeopathic physician
- Jayasree Kalathil – writer, translator, mental health researcher, and activist
- Jishnu Balakrishnan – professional footballer
- K. Abdurahman – founder of Chaliyar movement[181]
- K. Avukader Kutty Naha – former deputy chief minister of Kerala
- K. C. S. Paniker – metaphysical and abstract painter
- aristocrat
- K. M. Asif– cricketer
- K. M. Maulavi – Indian freedom fighter, social reformer, and the founding vice-president of IUML Malabar District committee[182][183]
- K. P. A. Majeed – former Chief Whip of the Government of Kerala
- K. P. Ramanunni – writer
- K. T. Irfan – athlete[184][185][186]
- K. T. Jaleel – former minister of Kerala
- K. T. Muhammed- Malayalam playwright and screenwriter
- K. V. Rabiya – social worker
- K. V. Ramakrishnan – Malayalam–language poet and journalist
- Kadavanad Kuttikrishnan – Malayalam poet and journalist
- Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma – resurrector of Mohiniyattam
- Kamala Surayya – writer of Malayalam literature
- Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran – Malayalam poet and translator
- Krishnachandran – actor, dubbing artist, and playback singer
- essayist and literary critic of Malayalam literature
- Azad Hind government
- M. Govindan – writer of Malayalam literature
- M. Swaraj – politician
- M. G. S. Narayanan – historian, and academic and political commentator
- M. K. Vellodi – former Indian diplomat
- M. M. Akbar – Islamic scholar
- M. P. Abdussamad Samadani – former member of Rajya Sabha
- M. P. M. Ahammed Kurikkal – former minister of Kerala
- M. P. M. Menon – Indian diplomat and ambassador[187]
- screenplay writer, and film director
- Malayath Appunni – Malayalam language poet and children's writer
- Manjalamkuzhi Ali – former minister of Kerala
- Mankada Ravi Varma – cinematographer and director[188][189][190]
- Manorama Thampuratti – Sanskrit writer
- Mashoor Shereef – professional footballer
- Melattur Sahadevan – Carnatic music vocalist
- linguist
- Mersheena Neenu – actress
- Mohammed Irshad – professional footballer
- Mohamed Salah – professional footballer
- Mohanakrishnan Kaladi – Malayalam poet
- Mappila pattu poet[191]
- Mrinalini Sarabhai – Indian classical dancer
- Muhammad Musthafa – actor and director
- Muhsin Parari – director, writer, and lyricist
- Nalakath Soopy – former minister of Kerala
- Nalapat Narayana Menon – writer of Malayalam literature
- Nandanar – writer of Malayalam literature
- Nilambur Ayisha – actress in the Malayalam film industry
- Nilambur Balan – Malayalam actor
- Nirupama Rao – former foreign secretary of India[192][193]
- P. Sreeramakrishnan – former speaker of Kerala Legislative Assembly.
- P. Surendran – writer, columnist, art critic, and philanthropist[194]
- P. K. Abdu Rabb – former minister of Kerala
- P. K. Kunhalikutty – former minister of Kerala
- P. K. Warrier – ayurvedic physician and a Padma Bhushan winner
- P. P. Ramachandran – Malayalam poet
- P. V. Abdul Wahab – businessman and a member of Rajya Sabha
- Paloli Mohammed Kutty – former minister of Kerala
- Parameshvara– mathematician and astronomer
- Parvathy Jayadevan – playback singer
- Poonthanam Nambudiri – Malayalam poet[195]
- Premji – social reformer, cultural leader, and actor
- Prithviraj Sukumaran – actor, director, producer, playback singer, and distributor
- Pulapre Balakrishnan – economist and educationalist
- Mappila pattu poet[196]
- Rajeev Nair– writer, lyricist, and producer
- Ranjith Padinhateeri – biological physicist
- Rashin Rahman – actor
- Raja Ravi Varma – painter and artist
- Ravi Menon – actor
- Ravi Vallathol – actor
- Rinshad Reera – student activist
- Salam Bappu – film director
- Salman Kalliyath – professional footballer
- Sangita Madhavan Nair – actress
- Sankaran Embranthiri – Kathakali musician
- Savithri Rajeevan – poet, short story writer, and painter
- Sayyid Sanaullah Makti Tangal – social reformer[197][198]
- Shahabaz Aman – Playback singer and Composer.[199][200]
- Shanavas K Bavakutty – film director
- Shweta Menon– model, actress, and television anchor
- Sithara – playback singer, composer, and actor[201]
- Sooraj Thelakkad – actor
- Sukumaran – film actor and producer
- Sunny Wayne – film actor
- Syed Muhammedali Shihab Thangal – religious leader and politician[202]
- T. A. Razzaq – screenwriter
- T. K. Hamza – former minister of Kerala
- T. K. Padmini – painter
- T. M. Nair – political activist of Dravidian movement
- Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan - "father" of Malayalam language[203][204]
- Tirur Nambissan – Kathakali singer
- U. A. Beeran – former minister of Kerala
- U.Jimshad– professional footballer
- U. Sharaf Ali – professional footballer
- Unni Menon – playback singer
- Uroob – writer of Malayalam literature
- V. Abdurahiman – Minister of Kerala
- V. C. Balakrishna Panicker – poet and writer
- V. T. Bhattathiripad – social reformer
- Vaidyaratnam Triprangode Moossad – ayurvedic physician
- Vallathol Narayana Menon – Malayalam poet[206]
- Variyan Kunnathu Kunjahammed Haji – Indian freedom fighter[207]
- Vazhenkada Kunchu Nair – Kathakali master and a Padma Shri winner
- Vazhenkada Vijayan – retired principal of Kerala Kalamandalam
- Veliyankode Umar Khasi – freedom fighter and poet
- Vinay Govind – Indian film director
- Zainuddin Makhdoom II – author of Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen
- Zakariya Mohammed – film director, screenwriter, and actor[208][209]
- Zakeer Mundampara – professional footballer
- Zeenath – actress
Palakkad
- V. T. Bhattathiripad
- C. P. Mohammed
- Major Ravi
- Anumol
- Manikandan Pattambi
- Kalamandalam Gopi
- M.G. Sasi
- Shivaji (Malayalam actor)
- Anita Nair
- E Sreedharan(Metroman of India)
- Kunchan Nambiar
- K. P. Kesava Menon – idealist, founder of Mathrubhoomi
- Methil Devika
- M. T. Vasudevan Nair
- M. B. Rajesh
- O. V. Vijayan
- K. Sankaranarayanan
- Sudev Nair
- Shashi Tharoor
- T. N. Seshan – former Chief Election Commissioner
- P. R. Pisharoty – Kollengode, father of remote sensing in India
- M. G. Ramachandran – actor and former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu
- Vidya Balan – Bollywood actress
- Shankar Mahadevan – singer
- Stephen Devassy – pianist
- Priyamani – actress
- Raghuvaran – actor
- P R Nathan– novelist, writer
- Swarnalatha – singer
- Unni Mukundan – actor
- Niranjan EK – decorated military officer
- Govind Padmasoorya – actor
- Samyuktha Menon– actress
- M.P. Sankunni Nair – novelist
- Palghat Mani Iyer – Mridangist
- Kocheril R. Narayanan– former president of India
- V P Menon
- Olappamanna
- O V Vijayan
- Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri
- Malayattoor Ramakrishnan
- O M C Narayanan Nambudiripad
- K. S. Sethumadhavan
- P. Unnikrishnan
- Ottapalam Pappan – Malayalam drama and film actor
- Tamil Filmdirector
- Lal Jose – Malayalam film director
- Anil Radhakrishnan Menon – Malayalam film director
- Bhaskar Menon – first Indian to head a multinational corporation, chairman of Lever Brothers (now Unilever)
- K. P. S. Menon – first Foreign Secretary of India
- M. G. K. Menon – former Union Minister and Scientific Adviser in the Rajiv Gandhi administration
- KP Candeth– Lieutenant General
- Shivshankar Menon – 4th National Security Advisor and 26th foreign secretary
- M. K. Narayanan – former chief of the Intelligence Bureau and former National Security Adviser
- High Commissioner of Indiato Singapore
- C. Venkataraman Sundaram – former director of Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research and Padma Bhushan recipient[210]
- Dhruvan – Malayalam film actor
- Srinish Aravind – television actor
See also
- Malabar pepper
- North Malabar
- South Malabar Gramin Bank
- Malabar District
- Calicut International Airport
- University of Calicut
- Kozhikode
- Zamorin
- Palakkad
- Malappuram
References
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- ^ "Limits of assembly constituencies of Kerala" (PDF). Keralaassembly.org. Retrieved 26 July 2020.
- ^ ISBN 9788120604476.
- ^ Pamela Nightingale, ‘Jonathan Duncan (bap. 1756, d. 1811)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, May 2009
- ^ Boag, GT (1933). The Madras Presidency (1881-1931) (PDF). Madras: Government of Madras. p. 63.
- ^ Government of Madras (1953). 1951 Census Handbook- Malabar District (PDF). Madras Government Press.
- ^ ISBN 9788126415885. Retrieved 19 July 2020.
- ^ J. Sturrock (1894). "Madras District Manuals - South Canara (Volume-I)". Madras Government Press.
- ^ V. Nagam Aiya (1906). The Travancore State Manual. Travancore Government Press.
- ^ C. A. Innes and F. B. Evans, Malabar and Anjengo, volume 1, Madras District Gazetteers (Madras: Government Press, 1915), p. 2.
- ^ M. T. Narayanan, Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar (New Delhi: Northern Book Centre, 2003), xvi–xvii.
- ISBN 978-81-206-0446-9.
- ^ Mohammad, K.M. "Arab relations with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th centuries" Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 60 (1999), pp. 226–34.
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- ^ Coastal Histories: Society and Ecology in Pre-modern India, Yogesh Sharma, Primus Books 2010
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- ^ A. Shreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History
- ^ According to Pliny the Elder, goods from India were sold in the Empire at 100 times their original purchase price. See [1]
- ^ Bostock, John (1855). "26 (Voyages to India)". Pliny the Elder, The Natural History. London: Taylor and Francis.
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- ^ Veluthat, Kesavan (1 June 2018). "History and historiography in constituting a region: The case of Kerala". Studies in People's History. 5 (1): 13–31. [2]
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- ^ K. V. Krishna Iyer, Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.
- ^ Ibn Battuta, H. A. R. Gibb (1994). The Travels of Ibn Battuta A.D 1325-1354. Vol. IV. London.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ISBN 974-8496-78-3
- ^ Varthema, Ludovico di, The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema, A.D.1503–08, translated from the original 1510 Italian ed. by John Winter Jones, Hakluyt Society, London
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One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400 A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read anymore the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the series without the calculus, but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case, the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Leelakrishnan, Alamkode (17 June 2019). "അമ്പതിന്റെ നിറവില് മലപ്പുറം; മലപ്പുറത്തിന്റെ മാനവിക മഹാപൈതൃകം". Mathrubhumi. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 21 February 2021.
- ISBN 8185499268; Edition : 1996; Pages: 2500; Author:T.K. Velu Pillai; Editor:S.Raimon; Category:Manuals; Year of Publishing:1940
- ISBN 81-7835-018-1(Vol II)
- ISBN 8120601696- Published By: Asian Educational Services
- ISBN 978-6139120642.
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- ISBN 9786139120642
- ISBN 978-8170200406
- ^ Sister's son. According to the matrilineal system prevalent at that time children born of the female members only belonged to that house.
- ^ The forces were from Kochi, Thekkumkoor, Deshinganad (present kollam) and Purakkad who had enmity towards Marthanda Varma
- ^ Most of the area under the present Kilimanoor and Pazhayakunnummel panchayats.
- ^ Although under his kingdom
- ^ The original temple being at Nerumkaithakotta, near Kozhikode
- ^ It is also said[by whom?] Shaastha and Ayyappa are different
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- ^ "Length of PWD Roads in Malappuram". kerenvis.nic.in. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
- ^ a b "നാടുകാണിച്ചുരം വിളിക്കുന്നു, അപൂര്വകാഴ്ചകളുമായി". Mathrubhumi. 25 June 2019. Archived from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
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- ^ a b c d e f g h "ആ ചൂളംവിളി പിന്നെയും പിന്നെയും..." Mathrubhumi. 17 June 2019. Archived from the original on 30 November 2020. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
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- ^ Chandran 2018, p. 386.
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- ^ "HiLITE City, One of India's Largest Mixed-Use Development Project Enters the Limelight". Business Wire. 9 March 2015. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
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Further reading
- S. Muhammad Hussain Nainar (1942), Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language, University of Madras (The English translation of Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen)
- K. V. Krishna Iyer (1938), Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806, Norman Printing Bureau, Kozhikode
- William Logan (1887), Malabar Manual (Volume-I), Madras Government Press
- William Logan (1887), Malabar Manual (Volume-II), Madras Government Press
- Charles Alexander Innes (1908), Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-I), Madras Government Press
- Charles Alexander Innes (1915), Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-II), Madras Government Press
- Government of Madras (1953), 1951 Census Handbook- Malabar District (PDF), Madras Government Press
- J. I. Arputhanathan (1955), South Kanara, The Nilgiris, Malabar and Coimbatore Districts (Village-wise Mother-tongue Data for Bilingual or Multilingual Taluks) (PDF), Madras Government Press
- Rajabhushanam, D. S. (1963), Statistical Atlas of the Madras State (1951) (PDF), Madras (Chennai): Director of Statistics, Government of Madras